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COPYRIGHT DEPOSm 



A COURSE IN 

HOUSEHOLD ARTS 



By 
SISTER LORETTO BASIL pUFF, Sc.M. 

(Formerly Principal of Boston Public Schools of Cookery) 
College of St. Elizabeth 
New Jersey 



PART I 




WHITCOMB & BARROWS 

BOSTON, I916 






Copyright 1916 
By Whitcomb & Barrows 




JUL 2/1916 



Thomas Todd Co., Printers 
14 Beacon Street, Boston, Massachusetts 



5)CI.A4;J38G1 

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PREFACE 

A Course in Household Arts was prepared in 1902 for 
the Boston Public Schools of Cookery, and its use in that city 
was continued tip to the time a revised edition of the book was 
contemplated. 

The lessons were planned with reference to the requirements 
of the different grades, no less than with due regard for the 
wide variation in the number and length of periods devoted to 
the work. At the same time the material was so arranged that 
the essentials of the course could be covered in two years — the 
minimum of time recommended by the Board of Supervisors. 

This purpose was accomplished by dividing the course into 
two parts, Series A and B, each containing material for one 
lesson a week for a year, and each card including a sufficient 
number of recipes illustrating the principles involved to admit 
variation to suit differing circumstances and conditions. Allow- 
ance was made for needful drill in preliminary work and for 
the care and storage of materials and utensils customary at the 
close of the year. 

Designed primarily for beginners, these lessons have, 
through a teaching experience of several years, proved satis- 
factory in grammar, secondary, and higher classes. The theo- 
retical portion was condensed, expanded, simplified, or omitted, 
and the order of lessons changed according to special needs. 

It has seemed advisable to include in the present course 
only simple experiments which can be performed with utensils 
to be found in an ordinary school kitchen, since excellent labo- 
ratory manuals are published for students of domestic science, 
and opportunity for experimental work varies in different 
schools. Aside from these considerations, the time required for 
working out results by the laboratory method precludes the 

iii 



IV PREFACE 

extensive use of this method by the average student, who, 
though not intending to teach the subject herself, may neverthe- 
less desire to understand the principles underlying the methods 
employed in cookery and other household arts. While it is 
hoped, therefore, that others may find this work helpful, 
it is for students of this class primarily that the present work 
is intended. With such knowledge, it is believed that there will 
come an intelligent interest and a keen pleasure in the per- 
formance, raising even the homeliest task above the plane of 
drudgery pure and simple. 

With this aim in view, and with the idea of eliminating at 
least a portion of the reading, and especially of the burdensome 
note-taking that consumes so much of the time and energy of 
the student, a considerable amount of material has been collated 
from various sources. 

"In dealing with certain questions," it has been said, 
"authority is wont to carry more weight than pure reasoning, 
and quotations are frequently used when the same ideas might 
have been expressed with greater facility or brevity in the 
writer's own language." To a certain extent this opinion is 
concurred in, and this enlarged Course of Household Arts 
is sent forth, not as something wholly new and original, but 
"only the shifting into place of the innumerable materials made 
available and experimented on by others — another modification 
of them, like the combinations of the kaleidoscope." 

The intention was to include in one volume lessons formerly 
given in Cards A and B, but the abundance of added material 
made this impracticable. It was decided, therefore, to hold to 
the original plan, following the fundamental work of the first 
year with lessons in the second year which, in A Course in 
Household Arts, Part II, establish new principles and also 
enlarge and extend the application of those already learned. 

Grateful acknowledgment is here made to Miss Susannah 
Usher, who in the midst of a busy life kindly read the manu- 
script and offered valuable suggestions ; to officials of the 
United States Department of Agriculture, for prompt and 
courteous attention to requests for information, particularly to 
Professor Louis D. Hall, specialist in "INIarketing Live Stock 



PREFACE V 

and ]\Ieat" (formerly assistant professor of ''Animal Hus- 
bandry" at the University of Illinois), who, in conjunction with 
Good Housekeeping, permitted the reproduction of drawings 
of retail cuts of meat and the use of other material which 
appeared in that magazine : to Cornell University ; to the 
/\gricultural Experiment Stations of the University of Illinois 
and of the University of Alinnesota, for the use of illustrations 
of meat cuts ; and to all others who in any way aided in the 
preparation of this work. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Chapter I, Sweeping and Dusting i 

Nature and source of dirt and dust. "Dust plants" — bac- 
teria, yeast, and molds — what they are and what they do. 
Purpose of sweeping and dusting. Implements for sweep- 
ing. Method for hard and smooth floors, for carpets, rugs, 
stairs, etc. Collection and disposal of dirt and dust. Care 
of brooms, brushes, etc. How to prevent irritation to eyes, 
nose, and throat from dust. 

Chapter II. Washing Dishes and Kitchen-Ware ... lo 

Preparation. Disposal of unused food ; of garbage. Soak- 
ing dishes and washing. Order and method for china, glass, 
cut glass. Draining and drying. Material for towels. Clean- 
ing tinware, agate and ironware, aluminum. Scouring 
knives. Silverware — tarnish, polishing, storing. Care of 
dishcloth, dish mop, and towels. Care of sink, boards, and 
table. Care of refrigerator. 

Chapter III. Making and Care of the Fire .... l8 

Heat. Combustion, conditions required. Fuel — coal, wood, 
gas, electricity. Coal range — structure, dampers or regu- 
lators, care and cleaning. To lay a fire ; to keep fire over 
night ; removal and storage of ashes ; cleaning of stove and 
flues. Gas range — selection and care of; to light top burn- 
ers, oven burners ; how to prevent waste of gas ; to clean 
gas burners. 

Chapter IV. Laying the Table and Serving .... 27 

Breakfast, dinner, supper table. Serving in courses. Wait- 
ing on table — the waitress ; dress, duties, etc. Methods of 
service — English, Russian, Compromise. 

Chapter V. Food and the Human Body 3_l 

Conditions upon which welfare of the body depends. The 
human organism. Cells. Tissues. Organs. Function of 
cells. Division of labor, or "specialization." Care of 
body, what it means. Body compared to a machine. Needs 
of the living machine. Repair material and fuel. Chemical 
composition of the body. Comparison of chemical compo- 
sition of body and of food. The foodstuffs. Functions of 

vii 



Vlll TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Page 

food. Vitamines. Protein supply; danger in excess of pro- 
tein. Water — proportion in human body ; importance ; 
effect of insufficient supply. Mineral matter ; occurrence 
in food. Food as fuel ; carbohydrate and fat. Protein as 
fuel. Reserve fuel of body. Potential or latent energy 
of food. Activity of food energy result of complex changes 
in the body. "Starchy" foods ; sugars ; cellulose. Fats and 
oils — source ; chemical composition ; use of ; functions in 
the body. Food as regulator of bodily functions. Water 
and mineral matter. 

Chapter VI. Cooking and ^Measuring 53 

Cooking — purpose, effect. Decoration or garnishing of 
food; flavor, seasoning. JMethods of cooking — boiling, 
stewing, steaming, broiling, roasting, baking, frying, brais- 
ing, pot-roasting, etc. Measuring, weighing, abbreviations 
and equivalents. U. S. Liquid Measure, Dry Measure, and 
Aletric Equivalents. xA-voirdupois Weight. Wood and Coal 
Measure. 

Chapter VII. Water in the Household 59 

Water — chief sources ; ideal water ; artificial purification. 
Composition of pure water. Impurities, organic and inor- 
ganic. Hard, soft water ; temporary hardness, permanent 
hardness. Water for drinking. Contaminated water. Coun- 
try wells. Sterilized water. Distilled water. Forms of 
water. Experiments with water ; boiling point. Freezing 
mixture ; application to milk sherbet, ice cream, etc. 

Chapter VIII. Be\trages and Fruits 66 

Water as a solvent, diluent, and carrier of flavor. Appli- 
cation to making of beverages. Tea — Russian, iced. Coffee 
— boiled, filtered, black, or after-dinner. Cocoa. Chocolate. 
Heating milk ; use of double boiler. Fruit — general com- 
position ; "flavor fruits" and "food fruits." Dietetic value 
of fruit. Dried fruit ; uncooked fruit ; overripe, underripe 
fruit. Cooking of fruits, fresh and dried ; preparation and 
serving. 

Chapter IX. Vegetables 87 

General structure, composition, and nutritive value. How 
to select. Care in preparing. Preparation for cooking. 
Methods of cooking. Serving. Beets, carrots, parsnips, 
turnips, onions, cabbage, tomatoes, potatoes. Experiments 
to extract starch. Marks of a good potato. Storing of 
potatoes. Recipes : potatoes — boiled, steamed, mashed, 
riced, baked, warmed-over, Lyonnaise, creamed, with 
cheese, potato cakes. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS IX 

Page 

Vegetable Soups 107 

Foundation of ; general proportion of liquid, starchy ma- 
terial, vegetable pulp, seasoning. 

Chapter X. Starches and Sugars no 

Starch — source. Chief starchy foods. Experiments with 
starch. Application to making cornstarch mold. Experi- 
ments with flour. Sweet sauces and thickening for sauces 
and gravies. White sauce — methods of combining materials 
for. Sago pudding, white sauce, toast, croutons, crisped 
crackers, hot water toast, hot milk toast, cream toast, and 
toast water. Comparative digestibility of bread and toast. 

Cereal Foods 120 

General composition. Cereal breakfast foods — varieties ; 
effects of cooking. Comparison of package cereals and 
cereals sold in bulk. Method of cooking — coarse cereals, 
fine-ground cereals, granulated preparations ; gruels. Corn 
meal — manufacture of; "water-ground" corn meal, new- 
process meal, Indian pudding, molded corn meal with 
caramel sauce. Macaroni — manufacture of ; test for good 
macaroni. Recipes — boiled macaroni with tomato sauce and 
cheese ; baked macaroni ; macaroni with bacon, with cheese. 
Rice — natural brown rice, polished ; composition and nutri- 
tive value ; preparation for cooking ; methods of cooking. 
Steamed rice ; egg sauce. Boiled rice ; use for rice water. 
Cream rice pudding. Sugar — source, digestibility, and nu- 
tritive value. Cooking sugar for candy — barley candy, 
glace nuts, fruit or nut bar, peanut candy, horehound 
candy, butter taffy, sirup for cornballs, cocoanut drops. 

Chapter XI. Flour, Yeast, and Bread . . *. . . 141 
Leavened and unleavened bread. Wheat — average compo- 
sition. Spring, winter, durum wheats. Bread flour, pastry 
flour. Gluten — breadmaking properties of wheat. Pro- 
portion of gliadin to glutenin. Experiments to separate 
gluten from flour. Effect of baking upon gluten. Wheat 
and rye compared as to breadmaking properties. Value of 
gluten in breadmaking. The wheat grain — general struc- 
ture. Manufacture of flour. Grades of flour — Graham, 
Entire wheat, Standard Patent, etc. Gluten flour — standard 
for. Test for quality of flour. Care of flour; storage. 
Yeast — source, general structure. Varieties — compressed, 
dry, liquid. Yeast growth — conditions for and effects of. 
Bread — ingredients, temperature for raising ; dough — 
"straight" or "offhand" method, sponge method. General 
proportions of flour to liquid. Kneading and raising dough. 



TABLE OF CONTEXTS 



Page 



Baking — temperature for and effects of. Care after bak- 
ing. Good bread. Some defects in bread. Recipes for 
bread — short process, long process, whole wheat bread, 
Graham bread. Nutritive value and digestibility of bread. 
Left-over bread — uses for. Dried bread crumbs. Scalloped 
dishes — apples, tomatoes, onions. Brown crust pudding 
with hard sauce. 

Chapter XTT. Eggs and Meat 169 

Eggs — structure of, composition, tests for freshness, pres- 
ervation, nutritive value, albumin. Experiments. Applica- 
tion to making eggnog, egg lemonade, eggs soft cooked, 
hard cooked, poached, o.^^ vermiceUi ; custard, baked and 
steamed ; steamed eggs, creamy eggs, and scrambled eggs. 

Meat 179 

Classes ; general structure of ; muscle fibers or tubes ; con- 
nective tissue; cell substance; juice of meat. Effects of 
"ripening," of freezing. Fat. Flavor of meat. Extrac- 
tives. Food value of. Fat, bones, trimmings — uses of. 
Organs used as food. Average composition of meat. 
Marketing. Quality in meat. Grain. Firmness. Marbling. 
]\Iarks of tenderness. Color. Proportion of bone, texture 
and color of bone. Beef cuts — Chicago method, Boston 
method. Carcass beef. Sides, quarters, "straight" cuts — 
loins, ribs, rounds, chucks, plates, flanks, and shanks. 
Secondary cuts — hind shank, rump, clod, and neck. Loin 
cuts; tenderloin. Veal — "native" and "Western." Veal 
cuts — saddles, racks. Mutton and lamb — yearlings. Qualit}^ 
in mutton. Flavor. "Break" or lamb joint. Spring lambs. 
Mutton, lamb cuts ; wholesale. Method of dividing side of 
mutton for household use. Comparison of mutton and beef 
as to general composition and food value. Pork — whole- 
sale cuts. Quality in pork, flavor, digestibility. Lard — 
classes and grades. Retail cuts — uses and methods of cook- 
ing. Quick-cooking meats, 221 ; moderately quick-cooking 
meats, 221 ; slow-cooking meats — boiling meats, 221, stew- 
ing meats, soup and broth meats, 222. 

Chapter XTIL Meat, Continued 223 

Cooking of meat — purpose, effects, and methods. Experi- 
ments to show effect of cold water. Application to makin;; 
beef tea, broths, etc. Nutritive value of meat extracts, 
bouillon cubes, etc., compared with homemade broths, etc. 
LTse of meat strained from beef tea. Care of meat from 
market. Experiments to show methods of retaining juice 
in meat. ]\Ieat cooked in hot water. How to make tough 



TABLE OF CONTENTS XI 

Page 

meat tender. Application to cooking mutton, lamb, rolled 
beef. Meat gravy, mint sauce. Stewing meat — object. Suit- 
able cuts for. Methods I, 11. Vegetables, seasoning, and 
dumplings for. Beef, veal, or lamb stew. Broiling meat. 
Experiment to show proper method. Application to broil- 
ing steak, pan-broiled chops, Hamburg steaks, making of 
beef juice. Reheating meat — precautions, preparation, 
seasoning. Minced meat on toast. French hash or cottage 
pie. Hash. Meat turnover. Scalloped meat, IMeat warmed 
in gravy. Meat pie with potato crust. 

Chapter XIV. Fats and Oils 245 

Fats — nature and source ; nutritive value. Butter, lard, 
beef suet, dripping. ]\Iutton fat — how to remove flavor 
and odor. Melting point of mutton fats. Clarified fat. 
Method I ; German Method ; Method 3. Clarified butter. 
Leaf lard. Beef dripping. Savory drippings. 

Chapter XV. Fish . . . 250 

Composition. General classification — fat and lean ; digesti- 
bility and nutritive value of. Dried, salted, smoked, pickled, 
canned, frozen fish. Test for freshness of. Methods of 
cooking. Serving. Similarity and differences between fish 
and meat ; structure and consequent methods of cook- 
ing. Similarity in nutritive value makes fish a "meat 
substitute." Fish cooked in water. Drawn butter sauce. 
Creamed fish. Fish hash. Scalloped fish. Fish chowder. 
Broiled fish and butter dressing for fish. 

Chapter XVI. Milk, Milk Products, and Legumes . . . 255 
Comparison between nutrients of animal and vegetable 
foods. Unique position of milk as food. Value of milk. 
Experiments to show ingredients of. Composition of. 
Three reasons why milk not perfect food for adults. Milk 
as substitute for meat. Whole milk, skimmed milk. Value 
of skimmed. Fat of milk or cream. Butter. Buttermilk. 
"Ripening" of cream. "Butter culture." The souring of 
milk; cause of. Curdling of milk. Rennet. Care of milk 
in the home. Cleaning milk utensils. Rennet custard. 
Whipped cream. Butter. Butter balls. Cheese— manufac- 
ture of, ripening of, nutritive value and digestibility of. 
Cheese as meat substitute. Care of cheese in the home. 
Cottage cheese i, 2, 3. Sour cream cheese. Creamed cheese 
on toast. Baked crackers with cheese. 

Legumes . . . . • 271 

Nutritive value and digestibility of. Comparison of food 
value of with other food materials. Fuel value. Legumin. 



Xll TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Page 

Test for good beans. Boston baked beans. Dried Lima 
beans i, 2. Split pea soup. Baked bean soup. Puree of 
Lima beans. Stuffed bean roll. 

Chapter XVH. Salads 277 

Preparation ; to marinate. French dressing. Cooked salad 
dressing. Shredded cabbage, or cole slaw. Water lily 
salad. Rice and tomato salad. Salmon salad with rice. 
Egg salad with rice. Sour cream dressing. Bacon fat 
dressing. German potato salad. 

Chapter XVIIL Food for Invalids 282 

Importance of care in preparation and serving of food for 
invalids. Arrangement of tray. How to serve food. 
Sterilization of articles used in contagious diseases. 
Simple, digestible foods for invalids. Irish moss blanc- 
mange. Irish moss lemonade. Flaxseed tea. To chip ice. 
Orange sunflower. Peach foam. Apple water, rhubarb 
water, lemonade. Cracker gruel, arrowroot gruel, and 
flour gruel. 



SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHERS 

The order of lessons which follows was in general use for 
many years in the Boston Schools of Cookery and elsewhere: 

Series A, Card i Sweeping and Dusting 

2 Washing Dishes 

3 Making and Care of the Fire 

4 Laying the Table 

5 Food and the Human Body 

6 Measuring 

7 Cooking Fruits 

8 Beverages : Tea, Coffee 

9 Cocoa and Chocolate 

10 Vegetables 

11 Potatoes ; type of starchy vegetables 

12 Experiments: Starch — to show characteristics 

13 Application of principles to methods of making 

white sauce ; toast, etc. 

14 Christmas Lesson: Simple candies 

15 Cornstarch Mold; molded corn meal, etc. 

16 Rice — steamed, boiled, etc. 

17 Macaroni, white sauce, etc. 

18 Scalloped Dishes: utilization of left-over bread; 

Dried Crumbs ; Brown Crust Pudding 

19 Milk; Butter; Butter Balls; Junket 

20 Cheese; Cottage Cheese, etc. 

21 Eggs 

2.2 Meat : cuts and uses 

23 Meat : methods of cooking; application of prin- 

ciples to extraction of juice; Beef Tea; 
Mutton Broth 

24 Meat cooked in water: mutton, lamb, etc. 

25 Warmed-over meats; general preparation; 

precautions, etc. 

26 Broiling 

27 Stewing 

28 Fish 

29 Bread — short and long processes 

30 \^egetable Soups 



XIV SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHERS 

31 Salads 

32 Food for Invalids 
T,T, Freezing 

The arrangement of subject-matter in the present revised 
Course necessitated at times grouping two or more lessons into 
one chapter, as well as changing the relative position of certain 
lessons. The plan adopted may be adhered to or changed as 
desired by the individual teacher. 

The preliminary lessons remain as in the original Course, 
it being understood that instruction or practice in household 
processes, such as dish-washing and the like, may be combined 
with the lessons in cooking as local conditions make convenient 
or desirable. 

In connection with the study of Water, the principles under- 
lying the use of freezing mixtures are applied to the preparation 
of frozen creams. This topic, however, as is customary in many 
schools, may be deferred to the closing lesson of the year. 

The material given in Chapter V — Food and the Human 
Body — is intended for use as required, not necessarily to be 
given in consecutive lessons. Here, as elsewhere, the time and 
method of treating a topic must of necessity vary with the age, 
experience, and previous knowledge of the students. In general, 
however, it would seem that certain relations of food to the body 
will be more readily understood when some knowledge of com- 
bustion has been gained through study of Fire and Fuels ; also 
that the study of Milk as a representative or typical food will 
help to a clearer understanding of foodstuffs, or "food prin- 
ciples," as formerly termed. To this end, experiments to sepa- 
rate cream, curd, and whey from milk will show in a simple way 
the presence of the three foodstuffs — fat, protein, and water. 
(The remaining experiments with milk are better deferred until 
after the study of albumin in eggs.) Common salt will serve 
as an example of mineral matter, and ordinary starch and sugar 
of the carbohydrates. 

Chapter VIII treats of Fruits, fresh and dried. Those of 
the former class, which are abundant in the early autumn, may 
be used at that season, and the dried fruits in lessons given 
during the winter or spring. 



SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHERS XV 

The same rule holds with \'egetables, using in the lessons 
of the fall or early winter those which are then at their best, and 
the commoner vegetables and dried legumes at any convenient 
time. 

Vegetable soups may follow the regular vegetable lesson or 
be given later as a review of vegetable cookery and white sauce. 
Salads also may, if preferred, follow vegetables, or fats and oils. 

Since the cookery of eggs may serve to show some of the 
prominent characteristics and properties of a typical protein 
food, the tgg lessons are given precedence on this subject. It 
is not supposed, however, that all the experiments in this connec- 
tion, or indeed of any subject, are necessarily to be given at one 
time. One or more may be taken up to illustrate the principle 
involved in any given lesson. 

The theoretical portion is very full and will supply material 
for reading or recitation, which may be supplemented by Bulle- 
tins of the United States Department of Agriculture, or other 
reference material. 



I would not have any one believe that the truths 
it is my life work to preach are doctrines likely to lead 
away the mind from higher thoughts. On the con- 
trary, if I am right, they are the most necessary to 
clear thinking and right action. I have tried to model 
my daily life on the teachings of the Scripture. I 
nowhere find food spoken of in the Holy Book with 
disrespect, and the greatest miracles and most beautiful 
mysteries are linked with the daily necessities of food 
and drink. And what I have sought to impress upon 
you all is that dining means not only stoking the human 
body, but so stoking it that it shall manufacture the 
maximum of steam and the minimum of black smoke. 
And in the cookery and preparing of food there are at 
every time opportunities for courtesy and unselfishness 
to others, and the charm o.f exercising technical skill 
in the practice of a great art. 

— "John Honorius," by Judge Parry, in Cornlull. 



XVI 



CHAPTER I 
Sweeping and Dusting 

The purpose of sweeping is the removal of loose dirt. 

Dirt is composed of particles of sand or earthy matter, bits 
of worn-out clothing, refuse of animal or plant life, etc. ; in fact, 
dirt may contain particles of anything, clean or the reverse, and 
it may be wet or dry. 

Dust, on the contrary, is always dry. Dust is composed of 
the same substances as dirt, only dried and ground exceedingly 
fine. So fine and so light in weight are these particles that more 
or less dust is always floating in the air. The lightest footfall 
or the gentlest breeze will cause it to rise. Dust contains also 
tiny ''seeds" capable of growth. 

Dirt and dust may be filthy ; they are always repulsive be- 
cause they mean disorder and carelessness. When, moreover, it 
is realized that among the tiny "seeds" usually present in dust 
may be some which, as they grow, cause consumption, diph- 
theria, lockjaw, and other dangerous diseases, it is evident that 
dirt and- dust should be disposed of in such a way as to kill 
these "seeds." 

Because these "seeds" are so extremely abundant in dust, 
they are sometimes called "dust plants." They are also called 
"germs" and "microbes." "Germ" means that from which 
something grows ; "microbe" means simply a "little living 
thing." Scientifically, these dust plants are grouped under three 
heads — molds, yeasts, and bacteria. 



2 A COURSE I.\ llOUSKilOI.I) ARTS 

Molds are the most coniinonly known of these plants be- 
cause they can be seen with the naked eye. They grow and 
niuhiply rapidly in warm, moist places, destroying food and 
clothing. Mildew is one form of mold. 

Yeasts are widely distributed over the surface of the earth, 
in the soil, the air, and the water. Yeast plants blowing round 
in the air are called wild yeasts to distinguish them from the 
cultivated yeasts used in bread-making. The fermentation or 
"working" of preserves and fruit juices or other sweet licjuids 
is caused by wild yeasts. 

Bacteria (singular, bacterium), "little rods," are so named 
from their appearance when they are seen under a microscope. 
They cannot be seen with the naked eye. They are the smallest 
and simplest of known living things. Each bacterium is a sim- 
ple cell, — that is, an exceedingly small mass of living substance 
inclosed in a thin cell-wall to give it shape. This living sub- 
stance, or protoplasm, is soft, jelly-like, colorless, and nearly 
transparent. 

Bacteria are the plants usually meant when germs or 
microbes are spoken of, because some members of this group 
cause certain diseases, while others cause the decay or spoiling 
of animal and vegetable substances. IMost bacteria, however, 
are harmless, many are useful, some are even necessary. 

The home of many bacteria is in the upper layers of the 
earth, but being so small they are carried by the wind and rain 
and snow almost everywhere. They are found in the air, in the 
water, on food and clothing, in the mouth and nose, under the 
nails, and in other parts of the body. 

Like other living things, bacteria require food and moisture. 
Many require w^armth, though some can grow at freezing tem- 
perature. Some need air : others do not. All multiply with 
marvelous rapidity under favorable conditions, one dividing 



SWEEPING AND DUSTING 3 

into two, two into four, four into eight, and so on. As they 
grow, some bacteria produce poisonous substances which fre- 
quently cause more harm than the mere presence of the bacteria 
themselves. Some species can divide and become full grown 
in half an hour or even in less time. If this rapid multiplication 
should continue without interruption, each bacterium, it has 
been computed, would produce 16,000,000 offspring in twenty- 
four hours. Such an extremely rapid increase as this could not 
occur, however, because lack of food or the accumulation of 
their own life wastes would soon check the growth of the bac- 
teria or kill them. Nevertheless, their power of multiplication 
under even ordinary circumstances is so great that in spite 
of their exceedingly minute size, they accomplish marvelous 
results in a very short time. 

Bacteria can live a long time even when deprived of food 
and moisture. Under these unfavorable conditions the living 
substance sometimes shrinks or shrivels into little hard balls, 
called spores. Spores are difficult to kill. Some which had 
been boiled in water for several hours afterwards grew when 
placed in favorable conditions ; others were found alive after 
having been dried for ten years. Not all bacteria, however, can 
form spores. Fortunately, none of the common disease germs 
do so. These, therefore, can be killed by boiling in water about 
half an hour. 

In this connection it should be clearly understood that though 
bacteria are abundant in the water, in the soil, and in the air, 
nevertheless, the world is not filled with disease germs lying in 
wait to attack us ; for of the many hundreds of kinds of bac- 
teria known to scientists, only a few kinds cause disease. 

'*It is a mistake to think that every breath of air is danger- 
ous or that all food and water contain disease germs. ... In 
the bodies of persons ill with germ diseases, in the houses 
where they live, and z^'herever the zvastes from the bodies of 



4 A COURSE IN HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

the sick go, there, and in most cases there only, are disease 
germs to be found." {Primer of Sanitation, Ritchie.) 

Note. — The germs of the disease contained in the matter coughed 
up by consumptives, drying on sidewalks and other places, may be 
carried with the dust to well persons, who may thus contract the disease. 
This possibility emphasizes the need for burning all dirt and dust and 
for washing the hands before touching food, especially after handling 
any object that has been in contact with dirt or dust. 

In general, dark, damp, dirty places are most favorable for 
the growth of all germs. Fresh air and sunlight are nature's 
great disinfectants. Nevertheless, it may also be said with 
Miss Talbot, in House Sanitation, that sunlight acts as a dis- 
infectant "only when it is direct; and there are very few places 
in a room on which the sun shines directly, even for a few 
minutes. The light is chiefly diffused, and even then is still 
further dimmed by the shadows from furniture, curtains, and 
other large, dark objects. In consequence, for practical pur- 
poses of disinfection, the admission of sunlight is not to be 
trusted. It is not a substitute for cleanliness." 

Implements for Sweeping. In getting rid of dirt, as little 
dust as possible should be raised ; implements best suited to 
this purpose should be chosen. For sweeping smooth, hard 
floors, whether painted, polished, or covered with oilcloth 
or linoleum, a long-handled bristle brush is best. For carpets, 
a corn broom or a carpet sweeper may be used. In either 
case, a small broom will be needed for cleaning corners and 
other places which cannot be reached with a large broom 
or with a carpet sweeper. A carpet sweeper raises less dust 
than a broom and does not wear out the carpet so quickly. 
A sweeper should be chosen which has some protection at the 
ends to prevent the furniture from being scratched. A sweeper 
with a removable brush is also preferable, because it can be 
cleaned readily. If a corn broom is used, it may be dampened 



SWEEPING AXD DUSTING 5 

slightly, or damp newspapers may be scattered over the carpet 
before sweeping to prevent the dust from rising. Best of all 
implements, however, is the vacuum cleaner, which removes 
the dirt without stirring up the dust. 

Preparation of Room for Sweeping. Dust and put away 
small articles. Dust pictures and furniture too large to be 
removed, and cover with cloths kept for this purpose. Dampen 
shavings or torn newspapers and scatter them over the carpet. 
Close the doors. The windows may be opened or closed during 
sweeping, according to conditions. If the windows are open 
when a strong wind is blowing, the dust may be blown back ; 
if the windows on opposite sides of the room are open, a whirl- 
wind of dust may be raised. 

Note. — Never sweep or dust a room while food is being prepared or 
served, since the dust, as it "settles," will be deposited on the food, and 
the food, usually warm and moist, will furnish favorable conditions 
for the growth of bacteria. 

Method of Sv^^eeping. Always sweep away from the walls 
and toward the center of the room unless there is some good 
reason for doing otherwise. 

In brushing a smooth, hard floor, begin at one corner. Brush 
the dirt from the corner and along the side of the room, close 
to the wall and parallel with the grain of the wood : then, stand- 
ing on the swept portion, push the brush before you, keeping 
it close to the floor to prevent dust from rising, until the middle 
of the room is reached. Hold the brush upright a moment before 
lifting it, then raise it gently from the line of dirt to avoid scat- 
tering the dirt in the air. Brush the space beside the one just 
cleaned, and push the dirt gently into small piles. If the dirt 
is collected into small piles rather than into a single large pile, 
less dust will be raised. When one-half the room is swept, begin 
at the opposite end and proceed as before until the sweeping 



b A COURSE IN HOUSEHOr.D ARTS 

is completed. If the room is unusually long, less than one-half 
the length may be brushed at a time. 

If a corn broom is used, clean corners first with a small 
broom or brush ; then begin near one corner of the room and. 
standing on the cleaned ])ortion, draw the broom from a point 
just behind you, and sweep with a rather quick, light stroke. 
When the end of the stroke is reached, allow the broom to sto]) 
short with a "motion between a short, backward stroke and a 
sudden stop," keeping the l)room in a vertical position over 
the dirt for an instant to prevent dust from rising. Sweep the 
place beside the one just cleaned, and collect the dirt in the 
manner described in the foregoing paragraph. 

After brushing, smooth floors may be freed from dust by 
wiping them with canton flannel or other soft material made 
into a bag, with which the brush or broom is covered ; or an 
old broom may be used to push over the floor a piece of woolen 
cloth or cheesecloth folded several times. When the under side 
of the cloth becomes dusty, it may be folded in and a fresh 
surface exposed. This ''folding in" process may be repeated 
until the cloth is filled with dust. The cloth should then be 
shaken out of doors. 

For carpeted floors use a heavy stroke in sweeping across 
the grain — since the stronger threads run in that direction — 
and a lighter one in sweeping lengthwise. Carpets and rugs 
which have a "nap" should always be swept with the nap, 
because if swept ''against the grain" they may retain particles 
of dirt or sand, and thus quickly wear out. New carpets or those 
which are not much used will wear well if, instead of being 
swept, they are "wiped off" with a damp cloth. 

Rugs are more easily cleaned than carpets. When it is possi- 
ble, the rug should be cleaned out of doors. It should be rolled, 
carried out, j^laced right side do\vn on the grass or on some 



SWEEPING AND DLSTING 7 

Other flat surface, beaten well with a rattan or carpet beater, 
then turned over and swept on the right side. After this sweep- 
ing the rug should be hung on a line till the dust passes ofif. 
Tf a flat surface is not convenient, the rug may be hung over 
a line and beaten. The rug should never be held by one end 
and shaken, however, since its weight will loosen the threads 
and cause the end to ravel. Rugs too large to be easily carried 
out should be swept first and then wiped off with a damp cloth. 
Begin at one side or end, wipe a portion of the surface, and 
fold or roll the cleaned part in. Wipe the under side of this 
])ortion and the floor beneath. Continue thus until one-half of 
the rug has been cleaned ; then unfold and put in place. Repeat 
the process for the other side. 

Concerning rugs. Miss Marion Talbot says in House Sani- 
tation: 

On the whole, the rug or carpet which nearly covers the 
floor and is not nailed down is most desirable, and with the 
help of the vacuum cleaner is much more easily kept clean 
than hardwood floors and small rugs, which formerly received 
the stamp of approval of the sanitarians. The care of these 
small rugs, etc., involves much hard work and heavy lifting, 
and where there are old people or children, they are not very 
safe because of the danger of slipping. 

Sweeping Stairs. Hegin at the top stair and sweep awa}' 
from the sides toward the middle. Brush the dust from each 
stair separately into a dustpan covered with damp paper. Be 
careful to clean the corners. Never brush the dirt from one 
step over the others, because the dust would be raised only to 
settle later on those previously cleaned as well as on those below. 
Dust may be wiped from hardwood stairs with a soft cloth 
slightly dampened. 

Collection and Disposal of Dirt. To prevent the dust from 
rising, cover the dustpan with a piece of damp newspaper, stand- 



8 A COURSE IX HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

ing the paper a little higher than the pan at the back, as "damp 
surfaces catch and hold the dust." The paper with the dust 
folded in should afterwards be burned. 

Care of Sweeping Implements. Brooms and brushes will 
wxar a long time if they are carefully used, cleaned, and kept. 
The broom during sweeping should be used on alternate sides 
as well as on opposite corners. When not in use, it should 
not be allowed to rest on the broom or brush end, but should be 
hung up. If it is washed occasionally in hot, soapy water, it 
will be kept soft, flexible, and durable. Hang the broom to dry 
in such a way that the water will not run into the metal parts. 
Tacks and w4res if wet will rust and break. Brushes should be 
washed in cold water on account of the glue with which the 
bristles are fastened. Lint, dust, and hairs should be removed 
from all sweeping implements each time they have been used. 
The brush of the carpet sweeper should be cleaned, and the 
inside of the dust receiver, when it has been emptied, should 
be wiped out with a damp cloth. 

Dusting. Dusting should mean the removal of dust. It is a 
waste of labor, therefore, to dust immediately after sweeping, 
since experiments have shown that at least two hours are 
required for the dust in a still room to settle. 

A thin, soft cloth, not over three-quarters of a yard square, 
is best for dusting. Cheesecloth is inexpensive and is easily 
washed and dried. Old cloth does not ravel so readily as new. 
New cloth should be hemmed or overcast, since ravelings might 
catch and break small articles. Have several dusters if possible. 
Feather dusters should never be used, since they merely scatter 
the dust, which will settle again as soon as the place is quiet. 

"Damp surfaces hold the dust"; therefore, slightly damp- 
ened or slightly oiled dust cloths or "dustless dusters" may be 
used. 



SWEEPING AXD DUSTING 9 

When the dust has settled after sweeping, wipe woodwork 
and windows. Wipe the walls gently with a clean, dry cloth. 
Carefully remove cloths from the furniture, and fold the dusty 
side in. 

Begin at one place and dust everything in turn until the 
point of beginning is reached. Dust collects chiefly on flat sur- 
faces. Dust high places first, then lower ones, so that any dust 
that falls may be collected. 

Use and Care of the Dusting Cloth. With a corner of the 
cloth wipe the dust from the surface to be cleaned, and fold the 
dust in ; wipe the next article with a clean part of the dusting 
cloth, and fold in the dust as before. Continue this process 
until all the clean portions of the cloth have been used ; then 
take a fresh duster. When the dusting is completed, wash the 
dusters. Scald them occasionally. Always dry them out of 
doors, and if possible, in the sunshine. 

Note. — Dust and die bacteria with it may cause much irritation to 
eyes, nose, and throat, the effects being similar to those of a severe cold. 
To avoid this, while sweeping and dusting, cover the nose and mouth 
with a slightly dampened cloth. 



CHAPTER II 
Washing Dishes and Kitchen- Ware 

Preparation for Washing Dishes. As soon as a meal is 
ended, put into a wide-mouthed jar any milk that is left; 
cover and place in the ice box or in some other cold place at 
once, and fill empty pitcher with cold water. ( See chapter on 
Milk.) 

Remove platters and dishes containing food, then plates, 
cups, and saucers, etc. Put unused food into small dishes or 
bowls, cover, and — after cooling any food that is warm — place 
in ice box or pantry. Scrape all waste portions of food from 
dishes. For this purpose small rubber scrapers may be pur- 
chased, though a piece of waste bread crust or soft paper will 
do the work quietly, quickly, and thoroughly. Put refuse into 
a pail or jar kept for the purpose, and empty and wash this 
receptacle after washing the dishes. 

Empty and rinse cups if necessary. Pile plates by them- 
selves — the largest at the bottom — cups by themselves, silver 
articles together, and steel knives and forks by themselves, to 
avoid scratching the silver. Place nearest the dishpan the dishes 
to be washed first. 

Soaking Dishes. Saucepans, pudding dishes, etc., that need 
soaking should be filled with water immediately after using. 
Dishes which have been used for milk, eggs, or for mixing cake, 
bread, or other starchy substances, should be soaked in cold 
water ; those that have been used for candy and other sugary 
substances, and for sticky, gummy substances like gelatin, 
should be soaked in hot water. 

lO 



WASHING DISIIP:S AND K IIX- H K.\-\\ ARE II 

Washing Dishes. Have two pans, one two-thirds filled with 
liot, soapy water for washing, the other with clear, hot water for 
rinsing. Dishes may also be rinsed by pouring hot water over 
them on the draining shelf. An empty pan or a tray may take 
the place of a draining shelf. 

A simple and convenient soap shaker, for holding small 
pieces of soap, may be made by perforating the bottom and 
sides of a tin baking powder or cocoa box, and fitting a loop 
of wire over the top for a handle. 

Dishcloths for glasses, silver, and fine china should be thin 
and soft ; those for ordinary dishes may be of thicker, firmer 
material, and those for saucepans, etc., of even coarser cloth. 
Since every part, outside and inside, of every dish should be 
washed, use a small mop for dishes not large enough to admit 
the hand. 

Towels also should be adapted to the work they are to do. 
Soft, thin toweling, therefore, is best for glasses, silver, and 
delicate china, and firmer, heavier toweling for other dishes. 
For drying saucepans, use a coarse, soft crash. 

Order in Dishwashing. The usual order is to wash glasses 
first, then silver, and next china, leaving cooking utensils till the 
last. For reversing this order by washing cooking utensils first, 
the following reasons are given : ( i ) cooking utensils are 
emptied first, and food hardens on them if allowed to stand ; 
(2) the hardest thing should be done first ; (3) the dirty water 
is not likely to be used for china or glasses: (4) delicate 
articles may be broken if washed in a crowded sink; (5) the 
hands are left in better condition after the work is finished. 

Method of Washing Dishes. Use hot, soapy water for 
washing ordinary china, silver, and glassware. Rinse all dishes 
except silver and glassware. Change the dishwater often 
enough to keep it hot and soapy. To prevent cracking, dip 



12 A COURSE IX HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

glasses edgewise into hot water, so that both outside and inside 
are heated together. 

Fine China, to be kept in good condition, needs careful 
treatment. In washing, place a towel on the bottom of the dish- 
pan and wash only one piece at a time, since the delicate edges 
are easily nicked, especially when they are warm. Use mild 
soap and but little of it for gilded or painted china. Strong soap 
and washing powders are likely to injure decoration. 

While china is warm, do not place one piece over another, 
for the glaze is likely to be cracked. Even when cool, fine china 
plates should never be piled without soft paper between, be- 
cause the lower edge of plates is often rough and may, therefore, 
injure decoration. 

In putting dishes away, hang up what can be hung, and 
place other dishes upside down to keep out the dust. 

Cut Glass should be handled with great care. Only moder- 
ately hot water should be used in washing it. If the cutting is 
deep, use a soft brush, but do not use anything which will 
scratch the surface, since cut glass breaks easily at any part 
that has been scratched. A grain of sand in the bottom of the 
dishpan may scratch glass. Place a towel in the pan, therefore, 
when washing cut glass, and cover the draining board with a 
towel or soft cloth. Since contact with a hard, cold surface is 
likely to crack cut glass, the place on which it is to rest should 
be covered with a cloth or doily. 

It is difficult to dry deeply cut glass with a towel, and 
because, if not dried well, the glass becomes cloudy, place such 
pieces, after wiping with a soft cloth, in a box, cover with saw- 
dust from a non-resinous wood, and let them stand for half an 
hour or more. Take them then from the sawdust, brush with 
a soft brush, and polish with a soft cloth or clean chamois. 
Spread the sawdust out to dry for future use. 



WASHING DISHES AND KITCHEN-WARE I3 

Tinware should be washed in hot, soapy water, special 
care being taken to remove grease and food waste from all 
seams. For this purpose use wooden toothpicks, skewers, or a 
stiff brush. Tinware discolored by the burning on of food 
should be boiled out occasionally in water containing washing 
soda. 

Agate and Ironware may also be cleansed with a washing 
soda solution. Rub with pumice stone agateware which has 
been roughened by the burning on of food. Remove ordinary 
stains with sapolio. After washing and wiping ironware, let 
it dry thoroughly either in the sun or on the back of the stove. 
If ironware is not to be used for some time, rub it over with 
unsalted fat to prevent rusting. 

Aluminum utensils require special care. Washing powders 
and strong soaps are injurious to aluminum because of the alka- 
line substances present in them, and therefore they should 
never be used. Cooking acid fruit in the utensils or washing 
them with a weak acid, like vinegar, will remove discoloration. 
# Scouring Knives. Scour the blades of steel knives with pul- 
verized sapolio, Bristol brick, or tripoli. To scour, place knives 
flat in order to avoid loosening the handles. Dampen a cork, 
or a piece of woolen cloth or cotton waste, and dip into polishing 
material. Rub the blades briskly, first on one side, then on the 
other, until stains are removed. Dip quickly into clean, soapy 
water, and dry at once. If cotton waste and tripoli are used, 
the knives need not be washed, only dried thoroughly. The 
handles of knives and forks will be loosened or split if often 
put into water. Clean them, therefore, by wiping first with a 
damp cloth, then with a dry one. 

Care of Silverware. Silverware in constant use should 
require little extra care if washed in hot, soapy water and 
dried thoroughly each time after using. To dry silver, which is 



14 A COURSE IX HOUSEMOI.I) ARTS 

a soft metal, and therefore easily scratched, use clean, soft 
towels. 

Tarnish of silver is usually a compound of sulphur. Silver 
may become tarnished through careless washing and drying, 
through contact with the hands — since perspiration contains 
sulphur — through contact with rubber articles, such as elastic 
bands or fruit jar rings — since rubber contains sulphur — and 
through contact with the. compound of sulphur found in eggs. 
Sulphurous gases from fires or lights in the air of a badly 
ventilated room will also tarnish silver. 

Storing Silver. Before storing wrap each piece of silver 
separately to prevent scratches. Never wrap silver in white 
paper or cloth, because they are usually bleached with sulphur. 
Wrap the silver in red canton flannel or in pink paper, which 
has had no sulphur used in its preparation. An especially 
prepared ''jeweler's paper" may be purchased. 

Polishing Silver. To remove tarnish from silver, rubbing 
with a polishing powder is generally necessary. Use only a 
very fine powder, since coarse grains will scratch the metal. 
Frequent polishing and unnecessary rubbing should be avoided. 
The thin layer of pure silver on plated ware is easily rubbed off. 

The basis of many silver polishes is precipitated chalk, which 
is inexpensive when purchased in bulk. Specially prepared 
whiting, or ordinary whiting sifted through fine muslin to 
remove coarse particles, may also be used. 

Mix the powder to a creamy consistency with ammonia 
and water. Do not use ammonia without diluting, because' this 
or any strongly alkaline liquid will dissolve silver. Alcohol may 
be substituted for ammonia, but is more expensive. If water 
is used — as it may be — instead of ammonia, more rubbing will 
be required. 

Dip a soft cloth into the mixture, rub over the silver, and 



WASHIXG DISHES AND KITCHEN-WARH I5 

let it Stand to dry ; then polish with a dry cloth, chamois, or 
fine tissue paper. For grooves and chasings use a soft brusli. 
Wash spoons, forks, and other tableware after polishing, and 
dry thoroughly. With the specially prepared cloth or chamois 
which may be purchased for polishing, no powder is needed. 

A second method of cleaning silver is to place in the bottom 
of a pan a wire rack, put the silver on the rack, and cover with 
hot water. For every gallon of water add two level ta])le- 
spoonfuls of salt and two of baking soda. Put a small piece 
of zinc into the water, and heat to boiling point. Boil fifteen 
or twenty minutes, then remove silver, which will be clean and 
bright. \\'ash and dry as usual. 

Care of Dishcloths and Towels. Wash dishcloths and 
dish towels thoroughly each time after using. Scald them fre- 
quently. After washing, shake them well and dry them out of 
doors if possible. Wash dish mops in hot, soapy water, and 
rinse in clear, boiling water. Squeeze them as dry as possible, 
shake out thoroughly, and hang them, with mop end up, to dry. 
Oven towels usually need soaking. Rub the soiled portions with 
soap, then roll the towels tightly with soiled portions inside. 
Cover with water, and let them stand for an hour. \\'ash them 
then in this water, next in clean, soapy water, and finally rinse 
in clear water. Wring as dry as possible, shake out wrinkles, 
stretch into shape, and hang out of doors or in a current of air. 

Care of the Sink. \Mien the dishwashing is finished, wash 
every part of the sink with hot, soapy water, and scrub if neces- 
sary. Wipe carefully all wood or stonework above and around 
the sink. Use a w^ooden skewer to clean behind pipes, and care- 
fully collect all scraps of food waste. Leave no wet cloths about. 
Wash and hang them to dry in a current of air when possible. 
Moisture and food w^aste make good soil for molds and bacteria 
and attract water bugs and roaches. 



l6 A COURSE IX HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

Flush the sink with boihng water every day, and once a 
week with a strong sohition of washing soda, using one pound 
of soda to one quart of water. Use a sohition of caustic soda 
or lye after pouring greasy water down the sink pipe, since 
grease collects and clogs the pipes and drain. Wipe iron sinks 
dry. If the sink is rusty, rub thoroughly first with paper w^et 
with kerosene, then with dry paper. Burn the papers at once 
after using. If the sink is to be left some time unused, rub it 
with fresh beef or mutton fat to keep the metal from rusting. 

Scrubbing Boards and Tables. Having removed all 
crumbs, rub boards and table with a wet cloth ; then with 
a brush, the bristle part of which has been dipped into water 
and rubbed with sapolio, scrub zvith the grain. Rinse off with 
clear water. Rinse the cloth, wring it as dry as possible, and 
wipe the board or table. Shake cloth and hang to dry. If the 
table has leaves, lower them and wipe round the hinges. Let 
no dirt collect in the seams. Grease spots on unfinished wood 
may be removed by covering spots with borax wet with a small 
quantity of cold water. Let it stand a few hours, then scrub 
well with sand soap and rinse with clear water. Repeat if 
necessary. Ammonia water may be used instead of borax. 

Care of the Refrigerator. All waste and overflow pipes of 
refrigerators, as well as of sinks, become foul with grease, 
dust, lint, and other substances if not well cared for, and fre- 
quently contaminate the air of the whole house. Put no Jwt 
food into the refrigerator, nor food with a strong odor, as salt 
fish, etc. Examine the refrigerator daily, that no food may be 
left to spoil or cause bad odors. A drop of spilled milk or 
a small particle of other food thus left will contaminate a 
refrigerator in a few days. The refrigerator pan should be 
washed every day or two in boiling water. Once a week, when 
the ice supply is low, everything should be taken out and every 



WASHING DISHES AND KITCHEN-WAKE IJ 

part of the refrigerator washed with a hot sokition of washing 
soda. To avoid injuring the hands with the strong soda sohi- 
tion, use a mop or small broom. Clean the pipe through its 
entire length with a cloth pushed through by means of a skewer 
or a piece of wire. Do not neglect the space under the ice rack. 
Wipe all parts as dry as possible. Place shelves near the fire 
to dry or, better, in the sunlight and open air. Leave the 
refrigerator open until it is thoroughly dry; otherwise it will 
become moldy. It is much easier to prevent bad odors than 
to cure them. 



CHAPTER III 
Making and Care of the Fire 

Heat is produced in four ways : ( I ) by the sun's rays ; 
(2) by friction or rubbing; (3) by combustion or burning; 
(4) by electricity. 

Combustion is the uniting of two or more elements to form 
a new compound. Combustion always produces heat and, when 
rapid enough, light. 

In order to have a fire, three things are necessary : 

1. Fuel, or something to burn. 

2. Heat, to make the fuel hot enough to burn or to reach 
its "kindling point." 

3. Air, to keep it burning, or "to support combustion." 
Pure air is composed of oxygen and nitrogen. Oxygen is 

the part necessary to keep the fire burning. 

Fuel is anything used to make a fire. Fuels are composed 
chiefly of carbon and hydrogen, with a small amount of oxygen. 
When fuel is heated sufficiently, the carbon of the fuel unites 
with the oxygen of the air and forms a gas called carbon diox- 
ide, while the hydrogen unites with oxygen, forming watery 
vapor. Carbon dioxide and zvatery vapor are, therefore, known 
as "products of combustion." Ash is what remains after all that 
is combustible has been burned. 

The kinds of fuel most commonly used in ranges are 7cood, 
coal, and charcoal. Gas, gasoline, and kerosene are burned in 
stoves prepared especially for their use. The ideal fuel for 
cooking purposes is electricity, because it is absolutely clean, 
can 1)0 controlled ])erfectly, and can be used in any place where 



AIAKING AND CARE OF THE FIRE IQ 

connection with electric wires can l)e made. Its high cost at 
the present time, however, bars it from use in the average 
home. 

Gas is the quickest, cleanest, and most convenient of the 
fuels in ordinary use for cooking purposes. The application of 
a match makes the full power available at once ; the heat may 
l)e regulated as desired and shut ofif when the work is done. The 
use of gas involves neither carrying of fuel nor caring for 
ashes, etc. At ordinary rates and with proper care, the cost of 
operating a gas stove is less than that of a coal range ; even at 
higher rates, the saving in time, labor, and trouble would seem 
to counterbalance the expense. 

Stoves or ranges are iron boxes in which fires are made. 
The part which holds the fire, called the fire box or fire pot, 
is in the front or at one end. The sides are lined with fire 
brick ; the bottom is a grate, the openings of which allow the 
air to go up through the fire, and the ashes to drop into the 
ash pan below^ 

Every stove must have tzco openings: one to supply air and 
the other to allow smoke, gases, and watery vapor to escape 
through the chimney. The slides controlling these openings 
are called dampers or regulators. The slide below the fire box 
controls the opening through which air is supplied, and is there- 
fore called the fresh air damper. It is called also the "creative" 
damper. The slide which controls the opening into the chim- 
ney is called the chimney damper. In cooking stoves and ranges 
there is always a third damper or regulator by means of which 
the oven is heated. When the oven damper is open, the hot 
gases from the fire pass across the top of the oven directly 
to the chimney. When the oven damper is closed, the hot gases 
are forced around the oven before escaping through the chim- 
ney, and thus heat the oven. When the fire is burning freely 



20 A COURSE IX HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

and the blue flame has disappeared from the coal, close the oven 
damper. If the fire burns too quickly or is hotter than is needed, 
close the fresh air damper partly or wholly, as required. When 
it is desired that the fire burn very slowly, close the chimney 
damper. All three dampers should be open when the fire is first 
made — the fresh air or creative damper to give a plentiful 
supply of air ; the chimney damper to allow smoke and gases to 
reach the chimney ; the oven damper to allow smoke and gases 
to take the shortest road to the chimney. For convenience in 
broiling, some stoves have a long, narrow door directly over the 
fire. In this door is an opening controlled by a slide, called a 
''check" damper, because when opened, a stream of cold air 
flows over the fire, and cools or checks it. If the check damper 
is kept open too long, however, the fire will go out. 

To Lay the Fire. Free the fire box from ashes. Remove 
stove covers, and, if necessary, brush the soot from the under 
side. In making a fire, paper, or shavings, soft wood, hard 
wood, and coal are generally used, being placed in the fire box 
in the order named. Crumple the paper loosely, putting the first 
piece into the grate so that an end w^ill hang below, making it 
easier to light. Use enough crumpled paper to cover the bot- 
tom of the grate ; over the paper place pieces of soft wood, 
slightly crosswise, to allow air to pass between ; arrange hard 
wood in the same manner, being careful to have sufficient wood 
at the ends, so that the coal may be kindled there as well as in 
the middle of the fire box. Open all the dampers, and light the 
fire from below. Push down the wood and add more if needed ; 
put on a small quantity of coal at a time. Too much put on at 
once \w\\\ "smother" the fire, making it burn slowly and smoke 
or go out. Never fill the fire box so full that the coals are higher 
than the lining. Add more coal before fire burns too low. Keep 
the oven damper closed except when necessary to make fire 



MAKING AND CARE OF THE FIRE 21 

burn more quickly. Fuel may be saved by keeping a fire from ^ 
day to day. Little or no kindling will then be required, and but 
slight additional fuel will be needed to quicken the tire. 

To keep a fire over night, shake down the ashes, add fresh 
coal, and when it is kindled enough to have the blue flame dis- 
appear, close all the dampers. In the morning rake down the 
ashes gently to allow the air to reach the red coals ; open the 
dampers and add a little coal. If the fire is very low, first add a 
little wood, and then, when the wood is kindled, shake down 
the ashes ; add coal gradually as required, and regulate dampers 
according to heat desired. Do not allow ashes to accumulate in 
the ash pan, which should be emptied every day, because ashes 
absorb heat; if they are allowed to accumulate, the heat will 
warp the grate and cause it to burn out sooner than it otherwise 
would. 

In a range that is used constantly, the flues (as the spaces 
are called through which the hot gases circulate in their passage 
from the fire box to the chimney opening) should be cleaned at 
least every month or two, because the fine ashes carried over 
with the hot gases that pass around and under the oven 
accumulate here. If these ashes are not removed frequently, 
they will interfere with the proper heating of the oven by 
absorbing heat and preventing a free circulation. 

If there is a second grate below the fire box, shake this 
lower grate after the ashes have been turned down, to separate 
the cinders from the ashes, which will fall into the ash pan 
below. Keep the stove doors closed until the dust from the 
ashes ceases to rise ; then remove the cinders and save them 
for burning again. If there is no lower grate, turn down ashes 
and cinders together into the ash pan and have them sifted 
later, l)eing careful to place hot ashes in a fireproof ash receiver. 
If a fresh fire is to be made, empty the ash pan and replace it 



2.2 A COURSE IX HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

before the fire is lighted, thus avoiding all danger of fire from 
careless storing of hot ashes. 

After ashes and cinders have been cared for, wipe the dust 
from the range with a soft cloth. A few drops of kerosene or 
unsalted grease of any kind on the cloth will cause the dust to 
adhere to the cloth and will improve the appearance of the stove, 
thus making the use of stove blacking rarely necessary. 

Wash the top of the stove occasionally with soap and water, 
and scrape off anything that has burned on. 

The best time to blacken the stove is after the fire is laid. 
To blacken a stove, moisten stove polish with cold w^ater and 
rub it over the stove with a dauber. To avoid soiling the cloth- 
ing in reaching over the wet portion. Iilacken first the part 
farthest away from you, then the other parts. If a stove has 
been allowed to burn red, use lard instead of water. Polish with 
a dry brush and rub quickly but lightly. Begin to polish the 
stove as soon as the fire is lighted, polishing first the part over 
the fire box, because it dries first. It is easier to polish a stove 
when it is warm, because the blacking dries quickly. If too hot, 
the stove will burn the brush, and cannot be made bright. 

Before applying the blacking, scrape off anything that has 
been burned onto the stove. Time and labor may be saved by 
wiping the stove immediately when anything is spilled. Old 
newspapers are useful for this purpose, and may afterwards be 
burned. 

A Gas Range should occupy small floor space and have 
room on top for heating several articles at once. It should also 
have a large oven, a place for broiling, two or more small burn- 
ers, one large burner for quick work, and a simmering burner, 
so that it will not be necessary when simmering to use a large 
burner partly turned down, and thus allow gas to escape. The 
range should be easily cleaned ; top grates and " working parts" 



MAKING AND CARE OF THE FIRE 23 

should be removable : it should be plain, with no useless 
ornamentation. The funnel of a gas range should be connected 
with the chimney, to allow products of combustion to escape. 
Ovens above, rather than bclozc the top of range require less 
stooping and have better light. 

Use of Gas Range. The first thing a beginner should learn 
is to know the stove and how to use it. Study the construction 
of the range until you are familiar with the use of every part. 
Follow each pipe from the handle or lever of the gas cock to 
the burner to which it belongs, so that you will know where 
to apply the match. 

Notice the position of gas cocks when open and when closed, 
and keep all gas cocks turned off when not in use. 

To light top burners, strike a match, turn the gas on /////. 
apply the match to the burner, and then turn down the flame 
as needed. 

If a gas flame burns yellow instead of blue, or "lights back" 
in the burner with a whistling noise, turn off the gas : then turn 
it on again, to let out surplus air ; close the burner, let it remain 
closed for a moment, and then relight. 

When lighting oven burners, open oven doors to avoid 
danger from explosion in case gas has leaked into oven. Turn 
handle of gas cock which controls the supply of gas to the 
lighter or ''pilot light"; apply lighted match from the outside 
to pilot light burner inside the oven through opening provided 
for the purpose: or, if stove has ''safety" pilot light, apply 
lighted match to the slotted tube found inside broiling oven. 
Next turn on one of the oven burner gas cocks, and the oven 
burner will light. Turn on the other if it is needed ; then turn 
off gas in the lighter. 

One burner may be used or both lighted and turned low. 
When only one burner is needed, it w^ill usually be found that 



24 A COURSE IX HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

the front one will give better results. From five to ten min- 
utes will be required to heat the oven when both burners are 
lighted. 

If anything is to be kept warm in the oven, light only the 
oven lighter. 

In using a stove for baking, it should be remembered that 
the heat of the gas oven comes from beneath and is greatest 
at the bottom, whereas in the coal range the heat passes over 
the top of the oven first ; so that while baking in the oven of 
a coal range the top of the food must be protected, in a gas 
oven the bottom must be shielded from the intense heat. The 
bottom heat is greater toward the bottom of the oven, and the 
top heat increases toward the top of the oven. A point may be 
found where the top and bottom heat are equalized ; and as 
this moderate heat is required in most baking, the rack in the 
oven should be adjusted at the proper level. 

W'hen the top of food baked in the oven does not brown 
enough, it is probable that the oven was not hot enough at the 
start. 

To Avoid Waste of Gas: 

1. Use the smallest burner that will do the work; never 
use a large burner unless in haste. 

2. Before lighting the gas, have the kettle, etc., near by and 
ready to place over the burner. 

3. Do not light gas until ready to use it, and extinguish 
it the moment you have finished. 

4. Turn down gas so as to burn only what is needed, and 
no more. 

5. Use the simmering burner whenever possible. When 
boiling begins use the simmering burner, as a low heat will 
continue the boiling after it once begins. 

6. ** Matches are cheaper than gas"; it is better, therefore. 



MAKING AND CARE OF THE FIRE 2^ 

to extinguish the gas between operations and to rehglit it than 
to waste gas by burning it uselessly. 

7. Some ranges have an upper or baking oven and a lower 
or broiling oven, both heated by the same burner. In order that 
no heat be w^asted, plan to use both ovens at the same time, 
especially as oven work is expensive compared with that of the 
top burners. 

8. A small portable oven placed over a top burner bakes 
small quantities at much less expense than the large oven ; 
a steam cooker having compartments for several dishes also 
saves gas. 

9. Meat or potatoes may be roasted under the gas flame 
in the broiling oven with less gas than it takes to cook theni 
in the baking oven. 

10. While using the lowxr oven for roasting or broiling, 
use the baking oven for anything requiring moderate heat 
or for boiling. In the latter case, it is best to have the 
kettle brought to the boiling point before placing it in the 
oven. 

11. In most baking, one oven burner can be turned out. or 
both may be lowered after the first fifteen minutes. 

12. Turn off gas from oven burners several minutes before 
baking is finished, as sufficient heat will be retained to complete 
the cooking. 

13. When baking is finished, plan to use remaining heat of 
oven for drying bread for crumbs, etc. 

Care of Gas Stove. Keep your stove clean. Dust and dirt 
will corrode burners and rust the steel parts. A gas range with 
proper care should last a lifetime. 

To clean a gas stove: (i) Heat it; (2) wash it; (3) grease 
it; (4) light all the burners and turn them low. 

Have ready a pan of warm w^ater, a soft woolen cloth, a 



26 A COUKSI-: IX HOrSKHOLI) ARTS 

small stick, and a little pot of grease ; any unsalted fat will do. 
such as lard, beef, or mutton fat. 

Wring the cloth out of the warm water; add a little piece 
of fat about the size of a pea ; do not use enough to make 
the stove greasy anywhere, but only as much as the hot iron 
will absorb. Wipe off the side shelf and top racks ; turn off* one 
of the top burner flames, and wipe off the burner ; continue 
until all have been cleaned. Do this every day if possible. The 
ovens need the same kind of treatment once or twice a week. 

Black lead may be used on the cast iron parts, but grease 
is best for the rest of the stove. 

Rust should be attacked with a bit of grease at once. Here, 
as in other cases, "an ounce of prevention is worth a pound 
of cure." 

The oven linings are the points at which the stove will give 
out first, but care will keep them in good condition for a long 
time. 

Remove and wash the sliding sheet under the top burners as 
often as necessary. 

The burners of a gas stove are so constructed as to admit 
enough air with the gas to produce complete combustion, giving 
a blue flame with intense heat. If from any cause the air inlets 
become closed, the flame will be yellow and smoky, will soil 
utensils, and give less heat. 



CHAPTER IV 
Laying the Table and Serving 

To gather around a table means a certain dignity and order, a 
certain formality, which means good manners, courtesy toward others, 
a spirit of helpfulness, comparison of ideas — not greedy selfishness. 
One meal a day at least should have time enough. Serving in courses 
promotes good digestion by preventing haste, as well as by allowing 
pleasant speech. It does mean more work, but is often worth the 
trouble. — Mrs. Ellen H. Richards. 

A table should look as neat and attractive as possible. Fresh 
tiowers, however few, a small fern, or a flowering plant form 
a pleasing decoration. 

The Breakfast Table. Cover the table with an undercloth 
of felting or of canton flannel, or with a clean cotton blanket, 
to protect the table, to lessen noise, and to improve the appear- 
ance of the cloth. Over this undercloth spread the tablecloth 
smoothly and evenly, the middle fold upward, exactly in the 
middle and lengthwise with the table. If there is a chandelier 
or other hanging light, the center of the table should be directly 
under it. Doilies instead of a cloth may be used for breakfast, 
luncheon, or supper or for an informal family dinner. 

The place where the father or the host sits, the "head of 
the table," may be at the end or at the side, whichever is more 
convenient for serving. The mother or the hostess sits opposite 
at the " foot of the table." 

It is often convenient or desirable to lay a carving or tray- 
cloth at the head and another at the foot of the table. 

Place the knife or knives at the right of each place, sharp 
edge toward the plate ; the fork or forks at the left, with the 
tines pointing upward, arranged in the order in which they 

27 



28 A COURSE IX HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

are to be used, the first one needed being- placed farthest from 
the plate. 

An individual "cover," consisting of the plates, glasses, 
silver, and napkin, to be used by one person, should be at least 
twenty-five inches in length and fifteen or sixteen inches in 
depth. Lay spoons, one or more, as needed, beside the knife. 
Have the handles of all these articles half an inch from the 
edge of the table, and be careful to lay them straight. Regu- 
larity and order should mark the arrangement of the table 
appointments. If cups and saucers are placed beside the plate 
at breakfast, spoons may be in front, instead of at the right, 
of the plate. Place the tumbler, top up, at the end of the knife 
blade, the butter plate near the end of the fork, and the napkin 
at the left with the fold at the top, the open edges at the right 
and toward the edge of the table. The bread and butter plate 
is placed near the point and slightly at the left of the fork, the 
butter spreader being laid across the upper right side of the 
plate. Lay a carving knife and fork at the right of platter or 
beside the knife and fork of the host, who usually serves the 
meat. The required number of tablespoons may be placed beside 
the dishes from which food is to be served. The salt and pepper 
may be at the corners or, if the table is long and narrow, at each 
side of the center ; individual salt and pepper shakers may be 
put beside each plate or between every two. 

Arrange the tea or coffee service in semi-circular form 
around the place of the hostess. Put the tea or'cofifee pot, the 
handle toward the right, on a stand at the right side ; next, the 
cream pitcher, then the hot water pitcher, with the handles 
toward the right; the sugar bowl, and tray bowl, if used, in 
front. Arrange the cups and saucers at the left, with the handles 
all pointing one way. 

The butter dish should be placed at one side of the table. 



LAVING THE TABLE AND SERVING 29 

near the one who is to serve it, with the butter knife beside it, 
handle to the right. If the butter is in the form of balls, or in 
other fancy shapes, serve with a small fork or a butter pick. 
The bread plate should be at the opposite side of the table. 
When the meal is served without a maid, it is convenient to 
have a bread board, with a sharp knife beside it, near one 
member of the family, wdio will cut the bread only as needed, 
to save drying. 

Fruit should be put on the table at the beginning of the meal, 
a plate and a knife being laid for each person, to be removed 
after fruit is eaten. Finger hoids are placed before each person, 
with doily or fruit napkin, and removed after use, the waitress 
taking one in each hand. 

Place the dish containing cereal in front of the person who 
is to serve it, a tablespoon at the right and the saucers or shallow 
bowls at the left of the dish. 

After the cereal has been eaten and the dishes have been 
removed, place hot plates and the dish of meat or fish before 
the host, and hot muffins or rolls or potatoes at the sides. 

When the meal is over, remove everything from the table, 
scrape or brush ofif the crumbs, take off the cloth carefully, 
folding it smoothly in the creases in which it was ironed. 

The Supper Table. Arrange the supper table like the break- 
fast table. Use smaller plates if no meat is served. A cake dish 
often occupies the center. If preserves are served, place the 
dish in front of one member of the family, with small dishes at 
the left and a tablespoon or a berry spoon at the right. 

Place knives, forks, or spoons for serving food beside the 
dish containing it. 

The Dinner Table. The dinner table is usually laid for 
courses. The plates for the several courses should be kept hot 
or cold, as the food may require, until serving time. 



30 A COURSE IX HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

Flowers or ferns, when used, should be in a rather low dish, 
placed in the center of the table. Salt, pepper, olives, pickles, 
etc., can l^e put at the corners or where most convenient. 

If the serving is done by the host and hostess, the hostess 
should serve the soup, vegetables, salad, dessert, and tea or 
coffee ; and the host the meat or fish. When there is a waitress, 
the hostess serves the soup, dessert, and coffee, and the host 
the meat or fish ; the waitress passes the plates as food is 
served, and also serves the vegetables and entrees. 

A simple dinner may consist of two courses, meat or fish 
with vegetables, and dessert ; or of three courses, with soup 
first. A more elaborate dinner, as at Thanksgiving or Christ- 
mas, may have more, as soup, with rolls or bread, croijtons or 
baked crackers ; meat or fish, with vegetables ; salad : dessert ; 
coffee and bonbons. The table should be laid neatly, and the 
serving should be careful, whether the courses be one or ten. 
Arrange the cloths, knives, and forks as for the breakfast table. 
Put at the right of each knife a soup spoon and a teaspoon, or 
more, if needed, in the order in which they are to be used. 

For the first course place a ladle at the right, beside the 
tureen, which should be before the hostess, and hot soup 
plates directly in front, almost touching the tureen, to prevent 
dripping on the cloth. In serving, soup should be dipped 
away from, not toward, the person. The same rule holds in 
eating it. 

After the first course, remove the soup tureen and the plates, 
one at a time, on a tray, or by taking one in each hand. Never 
• pile one on the other. 

Arrange the meat and plates for the second course as for 
the breakfast table. When this course is finished, before the 
dessert is placed on the table, remove all dishes except the des- 
sert spoons, or other necessary silver, and the glasses. Pass to 



LAYING THE TABLE AND SERVING 3 1 

the left of each person and remove crumbs if necessary, using 
a crumb tray and knife or a napkin and plate. 

Place the dessert in front of the hostess, the serving spoon 
or fork at her right, with plates or saucers in front or at the 
left. 

Waiting on the Table. The hair of the waitress should be 
neatly arranged ; her collar, apron, hands, and nails should 
be scrupulously clean, and her movements quiet and deft. 

The waitress is responsible for the proper temperature of 
dishes, which should be warmed for hot foods, and cooled for 
salads and frozen dishes. During the meal the waitress must 
see that bread, rolls, butter, and water are well supplied. 

If the serving is done wholly by the family, take especial 
care to provide everything necessary when laying the table. 
Butter plates and tumblers may be filled just before the family 
are seated. 

In putting ice into glasses, put water in lirst, then the ice, 
using a spoon for the purpose to prevent the ice from breaking 
the glass. In filling, draw the tumbler to the edge of the table, 
and never fill it quite full, leaving at least half an inch of space 
at the top. In passing it, take the tumbler near the bottom, and 
not with the hand near or over the top. 

It saves time and confusion for some one sitting near the 
host to serve vegetables or other dishes which are to l)e put on 
the same plate with the meat. 

After the cover has been removed from the tureen, the 
waitress should stand at the left of the server, hold the tray 
with the left hand, and with the right hand place the filled plate 
on the tray. Take it to the right of each person, and with the 
right hand set it in front, close to the edge of the table. 

The dish containing food served with the course should be 
])laced on the tray, with the handle of the serving spoon or fork 



32 A COURSE IX HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

toward the person at the table. Pass the dish to the left side of 
each person, holding it low enough to enable him to help himself 
with his right hand. 

In removing a course, take large dishes or platters first, then 
plates, knives, and forks. Place carving knife and fork side by 
side on the platter. 

Cover the serving tray with a napkin or doily to prevent 
noise. A folded napkin on the palm of the left hand is some- 
times preferred to a tray for passing dishes, except where two 
or more articles, such as sugar bowl and cream pitcher, are 
passed together. 

The tray is held in the left hand, because the right hand is 
strong and firm to take the dish from the tray and place it with- 
out spilling the contents. Cups and saucers and glasses are 
always placed from the right. 

When several persons are to be served, with but one person 
to do the serving, the tray may be dispensed with, and both 
hands used in placing and removing courses. 

Note. — If placing and removing dishes from the left is preferred, 
because an unguarded motion of the right arm of the person served 
may overturn the plate, remove with the right hand and place with the 
left. 

When there is but small space for a waitress to pass round 
a table, it may be necessary to use, in passing or removing plates, 
the right or left hand, as convenient. 

It has been well said that whatever expedites service without 
ofifending eye or ear is in good taste. Larger dishes, therefore, 
should be lifted with both hands ; relish dishes, etc., collected 
upon a small tray : while an individual cover, consisting of a 
large plate, small plate, and perhaps sauce dish, may be deftly 
removed by placing both small plates upon the tray held in tlie 
left hand, and carrying the large plate in the right. 



LAYING THE TABLE AND SERVING 33 

There are three recognized methods of serving a meal : 
the English, the Russian, and the Compromise. 

English Service. All food belonging to one course or all 
that is to be served at a simple meal is placed on the table in 
platters or other suitable dishes before the host, the hostess, or 
some member of the family. The required number of plates 
may be placed in a pile before the host or hostess, or taken one 
by one from a side table by the waitress and set before the one 
serving. As each plate receives its portion, the waitress carries 
it either to the person serving another article of food, such as 
vegetables, or places it directly before the one for whom it is 
intended. 

Russian Service is more formal and requires more attend- 
ants than the English method, since everything is served from 
the serving table or pantry. No food appears on the table, with 
the possible exception of candy or nuts. Each plate, with a por- 
tion of the main dish of the course and perhaps one accessory 
upon it, may be brought from the pantry, all other dishes being 
passed on attractively arranged platters, from which each per- 
son serves himself. As the waitress removes each plate with 
one hand, she sets down the plate for the next course with the 
other, the table never being without plates until it is cleared 
and crumbed before dessert. 

Compromise Service. Some articles or whole courses are 
served on the table as in the English style of service, while others 
are passed, as in the Russian. For example, soup may be served 
from the pantry in individual plates, the meat carved by the host, 
and vegetables passed by the waitress, who may also pass the 
salad and serve the dessert. 



CHAPTER V 
Food and the Human Body 

This chapter is a compilation chie% from the following: 

Human Nutrition, Part I, by Flora Rose (Cornell Bulletin No. 6). 

Principles of Nutrition and Nutritive Value of Food, by W. O. Atwater, 
Ph.D. (Farmers' Bulletin 142). 

The Computation of Rations for Farm Animals by the Use of Energy 
Values, by Henry Prentiss Armsby, Ph.D., LL.D. (Farmers' Bulle- 
tin 346). 

Food and the Principles of Dietetics, by Robert Hutchison, M.D., 
F. R. C P. 

Chemistry of Food and Nutrition, by Henry C. Sherman, Ph.D. 

Food at Fifty Cents a Day. by Graham Lusk, Ph.D.. Sc.D. 

The Human Mechanism, by Theodore Hough, Ph.D., .and William T. 
Sedgwick, Ph.D., Sc.D. 

Primer of Sanitation, by John W. Ritchie. 

Quantitative Aspects of Nutrition, by Henry C. Sherman, Ph.D. 

Unless we know something about the conditions upon which 
the welfare of the body depends, we cannot care for it intelli- 
gently. Some knowledge of its structure and activities, there- 
fore, and the relation of its various parts to one another and to 
the whole, will help toward a right understanding of these 
conditions. 

The human body is a mass of matter averaging in weight, 
when fully grown, about 150 pounds. It is not, however, one 
solid mass, alike all through as is a block of marble, for ex- 
ample, but is made up of various parts which differ greatly in 
many ways. These different parts of the body — as eyes, ears, 
hands, feet, heart, brain, muscles, etc., — are known as organs. 
The body as a whole is known as the human orgauisiu. 

An organism is a living body, animal or vegetable, composed of 
organs with functions separate but mutually dependent, and essential 

34 



FOOD AND THE HUMAN BODY 35 

to life (Webster's Dictionary) . An organ is that by which some action 
is performed or some end accomplished. Each part, therefore, of a liv- 
ing plant or animal which has a separate work to perform may be 
regarded as an organ. 

Cells. In looking at a brick wall from a distance, we are 
not able to distinguish the individual bricks ; nevertheless, we 
know that every such wall is built tip of a great ntimber of 
individual bricks or units fastened together. The body also 
is built up of a number of very small parts or units which are 
called cells. A single cell, however, is so small that it cannot 
])e distinguished from its neighbors without the aid of a power- 
ful microscope. With the microscope, the cell may be seen as 
an exceedingly small mass of substance, and a more dense por- 
tion may sometimes be distinguished within it, called the nucleus. 

**A cell is a small mass of protoplasm or living stibstance 
with its nucleus." Each cell of the body is alive, takes in food, 
and grows. The cells must have oxygen from the air, must get 
rid of their poisonous wastes, and must have a constant tem- 
perature, neither too hot nor too cold, or they will die. They 
may be killed in other ways, too, as by being crushed, by elec- 
tricity, and by poisons. 

Every cell of the living body must do part of the work of 
providing for its various needs. No single cell is left alone to 
do its work, however, but is assisted by great numbers of its 
neighbors, formed into groups, according to the kind of work 
to be done. 

As the kinds of work to be done are many and various, 
many different cell-groups are formed, the members of each 
being especially adapted to do the kind of work required. 

The Tissues. A group of similar cells all doing the same 
kind of work forms what is known as a tissue. Thtis, cells on 
the outside of the body are formed into groups, which together 
constitute its protective covering of skin-tissue or skin. 



36 A COURSE IX HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

The groups of cells which have as their part of the body's 
work the powder to cause movement form muscular tissue, or 
muscles; the groups which carry messages form nerve-tissue, 
or uerves; other groups may purify the blood, as the kidney 
cells do ; while the work of bone-cells or bone-tissue is to deposit 
around themselves quantities of mineral matter to give the 
softer tissues a hard, bony framework to support them. 

Other groups form the blood vessels, and in the red marrow 
of the bones are cells whose work is to form red blood cor- 
puscles. These not only give to the blood its red color, but also 
its power to gather oxygen from the lungs. 

Certain of the cells lining the stomach and intestine, and 
others grouped together into bodies called glands, manufacture 
digestive juices, which are poured out upon the food and help 
to get it ready for the body to use. 

The alimentary canal, or "food tract," which includes 
mouth, stomach, and intestine, is a kind of factory wdiere food 
is sorted, and the part that is useful extracted and changed 
into a form that can pass into the blood vessels and by them 
be carried to all the cells of the body, the refuse being excreted 
as waste. After food material has been changed to the right 
condition, the blood vessels carry it from the alimentary tract 
to the most remote parts of the body, and the cells of every 
tissue and organ have an opportunity of selecting the foods 
needed for their special work. Thus bone-cells choose the 
mineral matter and other materials needed for their growth 
and repair ; muscle-cells choose the substances needed by them 
for grow'th and the power to execute movements ; and so on 
until every cell in the body is provided for. 

Though each cell has its food carried to it and its waste 
products removed by the blood, it must feed itself and do its 
.own repairing and perform its own function, as the special 
work of a cell or group of cells is termed. 



FOOD AND THE HUMAN BODY 37 

By this wonderful division of labor, or specialization, among 
the cells of the various tissues and organs producing muscle and 
bone, blood and nerve, and so on, the body stands forth as a 
whole, all its parts working harmoniously, each having its 
own work to perform for the good of the whole, each de- 
pending on the cooperation of the whole for its existence, and 
all cooperating through the regulating ])ower of the nervous 
system. 

The welfare of the body is in turn dependent upon the 
healthy condition and right working of these little living units 
and groups of units, the cells and tissues. To keep our bodies 
in health, therefore, we must supply our cells with the things 
that they need and we must keep poisons and other injurious 
substances away from them, because when the cells are in health 
the body is in health, and when tiie cells die the body is dead. 
Care of the body really means, then, care of its individual 
members, the cells, for the whole construction of the bodv is 
to serve the cell. \\'e must consequently supply each little cell 
or worker in the body — blood-cell, muscle-cell, nerve-cell, and 
all the rest — with the materials needed for the special work each 
has to do, and we must also see to it ''that the systems which 
are concerned with carrying food to the cells and removing 
waste products are kept flushed, clean, and in good condition." 

The Body as a Machine 

We may, for purposes of comparison, regard the human 
body as an engine or machine of a very superior kind. A 
machine may be defined as "an apparatus either simple or com- 
plex, composed of unlike parts by means of which power 
received in one form is given out or applied in some other 
form," or, more simply, as an apparatus having the power to 
do work. One of the simplest of all machines is a stove, an 



38 A COURSE IN HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

apparatus composed of a few simple parts by means of which 
the potential energy or power of fuel — wood, coal, gas, or oil — 
is liberated and applied to the work of heating or cooking. 
Like other machines, the body requires material ( i ) to build up 
its various parts, (2) to repair them as they are worn out, and 
(3) to serve as fuel to supply energy or the power to do work. 

*'The steam engine gets its power from fuel ; the body does 
the same. In the one case coal or wood, in the other, food is 
the fuel. In both cases the energy or power to do work which 
is latent in the fuel" — potential or inactive energy — is trans- 
formed into the active energy of motion and heat. 

There is in some respects a very close likeness between the 
animal body and what are known as internal combustion motors : 
that is, those engines in which power is developed by burning 
liquid or gaseous fuel (gas, gasoline, etc.) in the cylinder of 
the engine itself. Such an engine requires two things for its 
operation: (i) sufficient repair material to keep its working 
parts in running order, and ( 2) a supply of fuel in proportion 
to the work to be done. 

Just these two things are what the living machine needs : repair 
material and fuel. In some respects, however, the living machine 
differs greatly from the artificial machine ; for example, it cannot be 
stopped and started again at will. As long as the body lives the vital 
machinery is in operation, although less actively at some times than at 
others. The body might thus be compared to an automobile whose en- 
gine must be kept running at low speed in order to have the power 
available when needed. Consequently the living machine requires to he 
supplied with repair material and with fuel as long as it lives, and not 
merely when it is in active use. — Fanners' Bulletin 346. 

Since food is the source of both its repair material and its 
fuel, it is plain "that when the body is deprived of food its 
tissues waste away, while its fat is burned up in the effort 
to keep the bodily machinery in motion." 



FOOD A XI) THK 1 1 l' M A X BOD^' 39 

Another important difference between the human machine 
and the steam engine is that the former is self-building, self- 
repairing, and self-regulating. The steam engine and the body 
are alike in that both convert the fuel into mechanical power 
and heat. They differ in that the body uses the same material . 
for fuel as for building and also consumes its own material 
for fuel. 

But the body is more than a machine. It has not simply organs to 
build and to keep in repair and to supply with energy : it has a nervous 
organization ; it has sensibilities ; and there are the higher intellectual 
and spiritual faculties. The right exercise of these depends upon the 
right nutrition of the body. — Farmers' Bulletin 142. 

Chemical Composition of the Body 

The repair material for any machine must be of the same 
kind as that of which the machine is made ; consequently it is 
important to know of what materials this most wonderful of 
all machines, the human body, is composed. 

Chemistry tells us that the body as a wdiole contains a great 
variety of substances. Since the following elements, and very 
small amounts of a few others, are always present, they are, 
therefore, probably essential to it : 



Carbon 


Sulphur 


Sodium 


Hj'drogen 


Phosphorus 


Potassium 


Oxygen 


Calcium 


Iron 


Nitrogen 


Magnesium 


Chlorine 



The chemical elements are not found singly in the body, 
but are united into compounds containing two or more 
of them. For convenience these compounds or combinations 
of elements are divided into groups, the most important of 
which are: proteins, water, mineral matter, fat, and carbo- 
liydrates. 



40 



A COURSE IX HOUSEHOLD ARTS 



The combination of elements in these groups may be shown 
as follows : 



Carbon 

Hydrogen 

Oxygen 

Carbon 

Hydrogen 

Oxygen 

Hydrogen 
Oxygen 

Carbon 

Hydrogen 

Oxygen 

Nitrogen 

Sulphur 

Phosphorus (sometimes) 

Iron (sometimes) 

Sulphur 

Phosphorus 

Chlorine 

Sodium 

Potassium 

Calcium 

Magnesium 

Iron 



forming carbohydrates. 



in different proportions forming fats. 



forming water. 



forming proteins. 



forming ash constituents or mineral matter which 
exist partly as mineral salts and partly in combina- 
tion with proteins, carbohydrates, fats, and other 
organic compounds. 



The "Proteins are essential constituents of all living tissues 
— of the so-called protoplasm" — that is, "the substance through 
which life especially manifests itself." In the body protein is 
always associated with water and mineral matter. 

When protein substances are heated, they gradually decompose with 
a strong odor of burnt hair or wool. During the burning many gaseous 
substances are produced and a mass of carbon (charcoal) remains. If 
the heating is continued the organic matter will be dispersed in the form 
of volatile substances, leaving only the mineral residue, or ash. 

The essential workiiif^ parts or the "machinery" of the bodv 
— l)ones, ligaments, muscles, and tendons; the skin ; the internal 



FOOD AND THE HUMAN BODY 4I 

organs of circulation, respiration, digestion, excretion, etc. ; the 
brain and nerves — in short, for our present purpose, the whole 
body, may be regarded as being composed essentially of the three 
groups : proteins, water, and mineral matter. 

Besides its essential parts, the body contains reserve material 
in the form of fat. This occurs under the skin and in other 
localities, and in minute particles scattered through the various 
tissues. While these fat deposits are of use mechanically as 
cushions between the various organs and as a protecting layer 
under the skin, fat represents essentially a storage of material 
derived from food consumed in excess of the body's immediate 
needs. Though part of the surplus food may be stored tem- 
porarily in a form known as glycogen or "animal starch," the 
larger proportion is laid up in the more permanent form of fat. 
The amount of fat is variable, and may fall very low without 
interfering with normal life-processes ; the amount of carbohy- 
drate is not only extremely variable, but also extremely small. 

The proportion of these compounds in the body is approximately 
as follows : water, about 65% ; proteins, about 18% ; mineral matter, 
about 4 to 6%; fat, about 12 to is% ; carbohydrates, less than 1%. — 
Elementary Household Chemistry, Snell. 

Chemical Composition of Food 

"All the organs of the body are built from the nutritive in- 
gredients of food. With every motion of the body, with the 
exercise of thought and feeling as well, body substance is con- 
sumed and must be resupplied by the food." The body must 
also be kept warm and must be supplied with the materials 
needed to yield energy for work as well as for the regulation 
of its physiological processes or functions. Since the sub- 
stances composing the body must be obtained from the food, 
it is evident that the food must contain the same elements as 



42 A COURSE IN HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

those found in the body. If a single one of the elements which 
compose the body is lacking in the food, the body will, sooner 
or later, suffer for the lack of something necessary to it. 

These elements of the food, like those of the body, are 
classified into five main groups : water, mineral matter, proteins, 
fats, and carbohydrates. These groups are termed "the food- 
stuffs." The functions of the foodstuffs are threefold : 

Protein 1 

Water ? to build and repair body substance or tissues. 

Mineral matter J 

Carbohydrates j 

Fats > to yield energy. 

Proteins J 

Water ) , . , . 

Mineral matter \ ^^ •'^^"^^^^ physiological processes. 

It is not to be inferred that any given food substance can be assigned 
once for all to some one of these three general functions. Thus the 
protein digestion products may serve both to build tissue and to yield 
energy ; phosphates may serve both to build tissue and to assist in regu- 
lating the neutrality of the blood and tissues. 

Moreover, it has very recently been established that certain impor- 
tant functions are performed by food constituents hitherto unknown 
and of which the amounts involved are so small that the chemical nature 
of the substances has not yet been fully established. Some of these sub- 
stances appear to be nitrogen compounds and have received the group 
name vitaniines. . . . While not yet fully understood, the vitamine content 
seems likely to prove a factor of some importance in the rcMe of fruits 
and vegetables in the diet. — Sherman, Food Products. 

Food as Building and Repair Material 

Since the body is composed essentially of protein, water, 
and mineral matter, these same materials must be supplied with 
the food. 

The most important proteins are those found in white of 
Qgg, lean of meat, curd of milk, and gluten of wheat; cheese, 



FOOD AXD THE HUMAN BODY 43 

peas and beans, nuts, and some cereals are foods relatively rich 
in protein. 

Proteins differ from the other compounds found in the body 
in that the proteins contain sulphur and especially nitrogen. 

Nitrogen is essential to the building up of all living tissue, 
because the substance of the cell itself contains nitrogen. The 
only form of nitrogen which the body can use, however, is that 
contained in proteins. The protein supply, therefore, calls for 
careful consideration, since, aside from water, the most abun- 
dant constituent of the body is protein, and without it there 
can be no life. 

The term "protein" (from a Greek word signifying "T am the 
first," or **I take the first place") is applied to this class of compounds 
on account of its pre-eminent importance in relation to life. 

Body substance is broken down and worn out or destro\ ed 
at a fairly regular rate during the working of the human organ- 
ism, and since the bodily machinery is running ail the time, this 
loss is continually going on, whether or not any external work 
is done. 

Living cells are made of different proteins, and these, together 
with water and salts [mineral matter] and fatty substances, are the 
cogs and wheels of the machine shops of life. The cell machinery, 
however, is not absolutely stable ; a certain small fraction is constantly 
wearing away. It has been estimated that under the most favorable 
conditions the quantity of protein worn out daily in the service of the 
life of a man is one-thousandth part of the total protein present in his 
body. — Lusk : Food at Fifty Cents a Day. 

The body differs from other machines in being self-repairing ; but 
it cannot manufacture protein for repair purposes out of the carbo- 
hydrates and fats of its food, any more than an automobile can be 
repaired out of the gasoline which supplies the power. The body is 
absolutely dependent for its protein upon its food. Tliis protein is 
needed for two purposes : First — It is required for repair purposes in 
the strict sense; that is, for making good the wear and tear of the 
bocHly machinery. The amount needed for this purpose is compara- 



44 A COURSE IX HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

lively small and is no greater, under normal conditions, when the body 
is doing work. than when it is at rest. Like a good machine the body 
makes relatively small demands for repair material, and requires 
chietiy fuel. 

Second — Protein as well as mineral matter is needed in the young 
growing animal to furnish the material for enlarging the working ma- 
chinery of the body itself. The amount of protein required for this 
purpose is just so much in addition to that needed for repair purposes 
simply ; hence to secure proper nutrition the food of the young should 
contain a liberal supply of this ingredient. — Farmers' Bulletin 346. 

Hutchison, in Food and the Principles of Dietetics, says in 
this connection that insufficient supply of protein leads to im- 
perfect tissue repair, more especially, perhaps, of the muscles 
and blood, and a lowering of the power of resistance to unfavor- 
able influences, including disease. A deficiency of protein in 
the diet of growing children, however, is especially disastrous, 
for children have not merely to keep their tissues in repair, but 
have to go on adding to them, and this necessitates a relatively 
abundant supply of building material, especially for muscle and 
bone. A lack of protein in the diet of children, therefore, may 
result in impaired growth and development, the consequences 
of which may last through life. 

An excess of protein, on the other hand, is not without 
danger, as it is believed that in the effort to get rid of the surplus 
as quickly as possible the liver and kidneys will be overworked ; 
for the body is unable to store up any surplus of protein, as it 
does of carbohydrate and fat. 

From the investigations carried on in the Office of Experiment 
Stations, the conclusion has been drawn that the total amount of pro- 
tein needed every day, which is usually estimated to be 100 grams or 
35 ounces (one ounce equals about 28 grams), one-half or 50 grams 
is taken in the form of animal food, which of course includes milk, 
eggs, poultry, fish, etc., as well as meat. The remainder is taken in 
the form of bread and other cereal foods, and in beans and other vege- 
tables. The portion of cooked meat which may be referred to as an 



FOOD AND THE HUMAN BODY 45 

ordinary "'helping" — 3 to 5 ounces (equivalent to 3* to 52 ounces raw 
meat) — may be considered to contain from 19 to 29 grams of protein, 
or approximately half the amount which is ordinarily secured from 
animal food. An egg or a glass of milk contains about 8 grams more, 
so the housekeeper who gives each adult member of her family a 
helping of meat each day, and eggs, milk, or cheese, together with the 
puddings or other dishes which contain eggs and milk, can feel sure 
that she is supplying sufficient protein, for the remainder will be 
supplied by bread, cereals, and other vegetable food. — Farmers' Bul- 
letin 391. 

Water constitutes about two-thirds by weight of the human 
body, being a necessary part of all its tissues. 

The only part of the body which does not depend upon a surround- 
ing of liquid to keep it alive is the outside skin. All the other cells, 
except those of this protective membrane, the skin, will perish if they 
become dry. The body deprived of food would die, but would not perish 
so quickly as if deprived altogether of water. — Human Nutrition, Part I, 
Cornell Bulletin No. 6. 

Since so large a portion of the human body is composed of 
water, and all material for its growth and repair comes from 
food, it follows that suf^cient water should be taken to carry 
on the work of the body and to replace that lost through the 
action of the lungs, kidneys, and skin, which amounts to about 
four and one-half pints daily. 

If the body receives too little water, the blood stream becomes 
sluggish, the cells are not flushed as they should be, the waste products 
accumulate, and as these are poisonous, the body suffers with weariness, 
headache, and various other ills. Water is, then, a very important part 
of our food. Many persons at the present time are constantly taking 
patent medicines for ills that are but too evidently the result of insuffi- 
cient water in the daily diet. — Human Nutrition, Part I, Cornell Bulletin 
No. 6. 

More or less water is contained in all food substances, no 
matter how dry they may appear. Many fruits and vegetables 
contain a large proportion of water, with only enough solid 
material to give them form. The drier our food and the more 



46 A COURSE IX iiorsErior.D arts 

exercise we take, tlie more water we need to drink. Physiolo- 
i^ists tell us that about five tumblerfuls should be taken daily in 
addition to that contained in the food. 

Mineral matter is just as essential as the proteins and water, 
though not required in such large amounts. 

The principal mineral substances in the body are compounds 
of calcium, phosphorus, sulphur, magnesium, sodium, potas- 
sium, iron, and chlorine. So necessary are these, that if the 
supply were entirely cut off, death would occur in about a month, 
it is said, even though all the other constituents of food were 
supplied as usual. About five-sixths of the total amount of 
mineral matter in the. body is contained in the bones, the mineral 
basis of which is calcium phosphate, or phosphate of lime. 
Mineral matter is present in the teeth, in the hair, and the nails ; 
it is also necessary in the blood ; it aids digestion and other 
important processes, many of which are not known. The fact 
that we know^ of no animal tissue or fluid which is free from 
mineral matter is a proof of its importance. 

Mineral matter occurs in small quantities in all ordinary 
articles of food — in the juices of fresh meats and fish; in milk 
and eggs, and especially in the yolks. Fruits and vegetables 
as a whole are rich in mineral matter ; the diet should, there- 
fore, contain them in abundance. Common salt, a kind of 
mineral matter familiar to all. is the only one added in pure 
form to food. 

It is commonly believed that a diet which supplies protein, fats, 
and carbohydrates in sufficient quantity will also furnish an adequate 
supply of all the mineral substances required by the body, except 
ordinary salt. Recent investigations seem to indicate, however, that 
at least three of these, calcium, phosphorus, and iron, cannot thus be 
safely left to chance, and especiallx- in the case of children. 

Calcium is necessary to the growtli of the bones and serves 
many other important uses in the bod)'. 1 f not present in suffi- 



FOOD AND THE HUMAN BODY 47 

cient quantity, bones and teeth will not develop properly. Milk, 
the best source of calcium, should form an important part of 
the diet of children all through the growing years. Other 
sources of calcium are dried peas and beans, oranges, cabbages, 
turnips, spinach, and whole grains. 

Phosphorus, like nitrogen, is essential to the development 
of every cell and is one of the chief elements of the bones. If 
the food of a child is deficient in phosphorus-containing com- 
pounds, proper growth cannot take place. Milk and cream, 
whole eggs or yolks of eggs, meat, whole wheat, oatmeal, 
dried beans and peas are foods which will supply phosphorus 
in the diet. 

Iron is an essential part in the red coloring matter of the 
blood and gives to the red blood corpuscles their power of hold- 
ing oxygen and carrying it to the cells. If there is an insuffi- 
ciency of iron in the diet the whole body will suffer in conse- 
quence, because not enough oxygen will be carried to the cells. 
Among foods rich in iron are eggs — especially the yolks — 
meat, spinach, peas and beans, whole wheat, oatmeal, prunes 
and many other fruits. 

There appears to be ample evidence that iron as it occurs 
in foods is of greater benefit to the body than that taken in 
medicine or mineral waters, and also that iron in medicine 
is more beneficial to the body in proportion as the ''food-iron" 
is more abundant. 

Note. — The necessity of a generous supply of vegetables and fruits 
must be particularly emphasized. They are of the greatest importance 
for the normal development of the body and all its functions. ... If 
we limit the important sources of iron — the vegetables and the fruits — 
we cause a certain sluggishness of blood formation and an entire lack 
of reserve iron, such as is normally found in the liver, spleen, and bone 
marrow of healthy, well-nourished individuals. — Von Noorden. 



48 A COURSE IX HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

Food as Fuel 

"Since the animal machinery is running continually," 
writes Dr. Armsby in Farmers' Bulletin ^46, "it requires a 
continual supply of fuel material, the amount which is necessary 
depending upon the amount of work done. This fuel material 
consists chiefly of the carbohydrates and fats of the food, 
although if more protein be fed than is required for repair and 
construction purposes, it, too, may be used as fuel, while the 
worn-out portions of the protein tissues are also utilized — 
that is, the bodily engine can burn up its own waste products 
as fuel. The unnecessary use of protein as fuel material, 
however, is wasteful, because protein is ordinarily more ex- 
pensive to buy or to produce on the farm than are carbohydrates 
and fats. 

"If the fuel materials supplied in the food are just ade- 
quate to the work to be done, they are virtually burned up as 
a source of power. If more are supplied than are immediately 
needed, the body is able to store away the surplus for future 
use, much as we may fill up the gasoline tank of an engine. 
To a small extent the body stores up carbohydrates (in the 
form of glycogen), but most of its surplus fuel it converts into 
fat. The fat of the body, therefore, is its reserve of fuel." 

If, however, the food furnishes an insufficient supply of 
fuel to the body, its reserve surplus will be drawn upon — the 
body substance itself will be "burned" as fuel, the body mean- 
while becoming lean; while if food be entirely lacking, the 
"fires of life" will "go out." The activities of the body will 
cease when its resources are exhausted, because energy must 
have some source ; it cannot be created out of nothing. 

The source of energy of the body — its capacity to do work — 
is, as already mentioned, the potential, or inactive energy latent 



FOOD AND THE HUMAN BODY 49 

in food. As a result of the complex changes which food under- 
goes in the body, its latent energy is set free, and its activity 
may be manifested as heat which warms the body or as zi'ork 
in the form of the muscular and nervous energy required for 
its various activities, internal and external. 

Physiologists believe at the present time that, under ordi- 
nary circumstances, muscular activity is first provided for, 
heat being a secondary or ''by-product"; that the amount of 
heat thus produced is amply sufficient to maintain normal body 
temperature ; and that increased oxidation of food for the 
purpose of warming the body may occur under certain condi- 
tions, when, as in extremely cold weather, loss of heat is very 
rapid. 

The living body, as a whole or in some of its parts, is cease- 
lessly in motion — '*by night and by day labor goes on in the 
workshops of life" — and consequently the larger portion of 
the food must be utilized for muscular activity. Even though 
the body is apparently quiet, as in the case of a person sleep- 
ing in bed, the heart beats — pumping the blood to all parts 
of the body — the lungs are expanded and contracted in breath- 
ing, and the stomach and intestine keep up the movements 
which are essential to digestion. 

Besides, a living body is the seat of contiiuious, invisible, and com- 
plex chemical and physical changes, such as the breaking up of com- 
pounds in digestion and their rebuilding in assimilation, that, if not 
work in the common meaning of the term, are its equivalent. — Jordan : 
The Principles of Human Nutrition. 

The food-energy becomes available through combustion ; 
that is, the oxidation of the carbon-containing foodstuffs — 
carbohydrates, fats, and proteins — to the simpler substances, 
carbon dioxide and water. Protein is never wholly oxidized 
in the body ; carbohydrates and fats may be. 

Combustion of the food takes place in the tissues, the oxygen 



50 A COURSE IN HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

which was taken up in the kings being used to slowly oxidize 
a portion of the food. 

This combustion is believed not to take place b}- contact of the 
oxygen and nutrients in the blood vessels, but it occurs through cell 
activity by progressive steps throughout the minute divisions of the 
muscles and other tissues of the body. The tissue cells undoubtedly 
obtain their energy from oxidation of the nutriment furnished to them. 
Notwithstanding this oxidation must be very gradual and occup\- much 
time, its ultimate products are, for the most part, similar to those which 
result from the rapid combustion of fuel. — Jordan: The Principles of 
Human Nutrition. 

These two foodstuffs, carbohydrates and fats, contain only three 
elements, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, hence their use in the body 
nmst necessarily be limited, since the other elements in the list given 
(page 39) are just as essential as these three and must also appear in 
our food coml^inations if we are to be rightly fed. They are very valu- 
able foodstuffs, nevertheless, since from them may be derived the main 
part of the body's ability to do work. They serve as fuel for the body, 
just as coal serves for the engine, and they may keep the body warm 
and give it the energy needed to make the machinery go. By themselves, 
they couM not maintain life for any length of time, for they would 
have no power to build up the body's tissues and keep it in repair. They 
would supply the fuel for energy, but all the other needs of the body 
would be unsatisfied, the cells would hunger for the materials needed 
by them, and starvation would soon result. It must be kept in mind, 
however, that the main part of the food consumed daily is to supply 
the body's need for energy, and the carbohydrates and fats are the best 
foodstuffs to use for this purpose. — Human Nutrition, Part I. Cornell 
Bulletin No. 6. 

Hutchison says that the greater the quantity of carbohydrate 
and fat supplied at the same time with protein, the less does the 
protein tend to be wasted in supplying energy and the more 
of it there is available for the higher purpose of keeping the 
tissues in repair. The fat and carbohydrate are sacrificed 
instead of the protein, which is thus "spared" or protected. 
This is what physiologists mean when they describe fats and 
carbohydrates as "protein sparers." 

The most abundant and important carbohydrates are the 



FOOD AND THK HUMAN BODY 5 1 

Starches and sugars; these are derived almost entirely from 
vegetable sources, practically the only exception being the sugar 
obtained from milk. 

Carbohydrates yield heat and energy, but since they contain 
no nitrogen, they cannot build tissue. It is believed they may be 
changed into fat in the body. Being abundant sources of energy, 
easily digested, and comparatively inexpensive, these carbo- 
hydrates are important food ingredients. 

The most familiar "starchy foods" are bread, potatoes, 
rice and other grains ; the most familiar sugars are those com- 
monly used in sweetening foods and beverages and in making 
confectionery. 

Other carbohydrates are cellulose, or "crude fiber," and 
gums, like gum arabic, etc. Cellulose is the basis of the cell- 
walls of all the higher plants ; it acts somewhat as the skeleton 
of an animal in giving a supporting framework to the softer 
tissues. Cotton or linen fiber and the bran of wheat are ex- 
amples of pure cellulose. Except possibly when very young 
and tender, cellulose is indigestible, and in its old age is changed 
into woody fiber, as may be seen when vegetables in the late 
spring become tough and "stringy." A certain amount of this 
indigestible material in the food aids in throwing off intestinal 
waste products, and thus helps to keep the inside of the body 
clean. 

Fats and oils are obtained from both animal and vegetable 
sources. These include fat of meats and fish, butter, olive and 
cottonseed oils, etc., fats and oils in various nuts and in some 
cereals, as oats and corn. 

Fats, like carbohydrates, contain carbon, hydrogen, and 
oxygen, but in differing proportions, the amount of carbon in 
fats being greater, and that of oxygen smaller, than in carbo- 
hydrates. Fats also yield heat and energy to the body and hel]) 
to form fattv tissue. Thcv are more concentrated fuels, yield- 



52 A COURSE IN HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

ing, pound for pound, about two and one- fourth times as much 
heat as carbohydrates, but yielding it more slowly. 

Food as a Regulator of Bodily Functions 

Less is known about this function of food than about the 
other two. Water and the mineral constituents of food are 
the chief agents concerned with the regulation of the physio- 
logical processes of the body. 

Water is of the greatest importance for the normal physical 
condition of the tissues. 

The proper functioning of each cell and of the body as a whole 
is dependent upon water. It furnishes in the blood the liquid which 
holds foods in solution and carries them to the tissues. In the cell, 
water holds the body substances in solution. It dissolves out the waste 
products of the body and carries them to those organs which are con- 
cerned with getting rid of them. — Human Nutrition, Part I, Cornell 
Bulletin No. 6. 

Water is also an important regulator of temperature, by its 
evaporation keeping the body at its normal temperature, 
98.6° F. It is evident, therefore, that from the physical stand- 
point water is the most important of all the articles of food. 

Certain elements of mineral matter are also essential to the 
body in carrying out some of its most important functions. 
During its activities waste products are produced, some of 
which are poisonous and, if allowed to remain in this form, 
very injurious. It is the function of some of these mineral 
substances — compounds of calcium, magnesium, potassium, 
and phosphorus — to unite with these harmful compounds in 
the body and to form other combinations which are harndess. 

Note. — "The ability of the heart to beat, of the muscles to contract, 
of the nerves to carry impressions are all dependent upon the presence 
nf some of these salts" (mineral compounds). They also aid digestion, 
absorption, and diffusion of the body fluids, and the activity of the 
intestine is dependent upon them. 



CHAPTER VI 

Cooking and Measuring 

Cooking includes the preparation of food for the table, with 
the application of heat or without it, as in the dressing of salads, 
etc. The object of cooking food is to make it more palatable, 
more digestible, or to kill any germs or parasites it may contain. 

Cooking may increase the digestibility of food by changing 
its mechanical condition so that the digestive juices can act 
upon it more freely, as in the case of boiled potato, etc. : or, for 
example, by improving its appearance and flavor, as in the 
roasting of beef, quickening the flow of these juices. 

Note. — Hutchison in Food and Dietetics says that the mere sight 
and smell of food which is aUractive calls forth a profuse flow of a 
peculiarly powerful gastric juice which may last for hours, and hence 
comes the importance for digestion of such esthetic aids to appetite as 
agreeable surroundings, a well-appointed table, and well-cooked food. 

Such "aids to digestion" are not necessarily a question of 
expense, as the difference between the elegance and refinement 
of one table and the lack of them at another may lie merely in 
the manner of cooking and serving the food. The most inex- 
pensive food can with a little attention to nicety of detail be 
made attractive in appearance, and a tasteful arrangement or 
combination of ordinary materials will give a pleasing sense 
of order and care. For example, have uniformity in size, shape, 
and arrangement of bread or toast, or of sections of food placed 
on the same dish. 

Decoration of food, or garnishing, however, should not be 
lavish, and the garnish should be appropriate to the article and 
so placed as not to interfere with the serving. If to attractive 

53- 



54 '^ COURSE IN HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

appearance agreeable flavor and variety of seasoning are added, 
the plainest food will be eaten with a relish. And not only this, 
but the use of flavors is an economy, for with them inexpensive 
foods are varied and made palatable. 

Methods of Cooking 

The usual methods of cooking are boiling, stewing, steaming, 
broiling, roasting, baking, and frying, or a combination of two 
or more of these methods, as in braising, pot-roasting, etc. 

Boiling is cooking by immersion in boiling water (212° F.). 
Food may be cooked in water which is hot but not boiling; this 
is often incorrectly called boiling. 

Stewing is long, gentle cooking by moist heat. Stewing 
is best accomplished in a covered vessel, with a small quantity 
of liquid and a temperature considerably below the boiling point 
— from 160° to about 185° F. 

Steaming is cooking by the heat of steam or vapor from 
boiling water. 

Steaming in a strainer over boiling water is sometimes 
called "wet," because the steam touches the food directly. 
When, as in the double boiler, steam does not touch the food, 
which is contained in a closed vessel over boiling water, the 
steaming is said to be **dry." 

Steam has a heat value far superior to that of boiling water, 
and although a longer time is often required, it is possible to 
cook a larger amount of food by steaming with a smaller amount 
of fuel than by any other method. Less attention is also re- 
quired, as it is practically impossible to overcook food by steam- 
ing, the only precautions needed being to keep a supi)ly of watcr 
in the boiler and to keej) the water boiling. 

Steam cookers have several compartments for food, all 
heated from one boiler, which is i)laccd on a stove or over a 



COOKING AND MEASURING 55 

gas burner. The steam from the water in the boiler passes 
through a flue and cooks the food in each compartment, the 
false bottom of which is so arranged as to allow the condensed 
steam to run off and thus prevent sogginess in the food. 

The steam from an ordinary stewpan containing boiling 
water in which food is cooking could often be utilized for 
cooking or reheating food, which should be placed on a per- 
forated pie plate or in a steamer fitted to the top of the pan 
and covered closely with a bowl or a dish. 

Baking is cooking by the dry, confined air of a hot oven. 

Roasting, as commonly done, is the same as baking. The 
term "baking" is generally used in connection with bread, 
pastry, etc., and "roasting" in connection with meats. 

Broiling is cooking directly over hot coals or under the flame 
of a gas oven. 

Frying is cooking by immersion in sufficient hot fat to cover. 

To saute means to cook in a small quantity of fat, first on 
one side, then on the other. It is commonly called frying. 

Measuring 

Exact measurements are absolutely necessary in order to 
get the best results in cooking. IVeighing is more accurate than 
measuring, but is often less convenient. If possible, however, 
every kitchen should have a good scale and a set of accurate 
dry and liquid measures. 

Flour, meal, powdered and confectioners' sugar should be 
sifted before measuring; they should be put into the meisurc 
with a spoon or scoop, and should not be pressed or shaken 
down. 

All materials are to be measured level, whether by the cupful, 
teaspoonful, or tablespoonful, the leveling to be done with the 
back of a case knife. 



56 A COURSE IX HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

To measure butter, lard, or any other fat, pack solidly into 
the cup or spoon and make level with a knife. Hard fat will 
soften quickly and can be measured more readily if cut or 
scraped fine. 

To measure a spoonful of any dry substance, fill the spoon 
with the substance and level with a knife. 

For half a spoonful, divide the spoonful lengthwise, hold- 
ing the knife parallel with the handle of the spoon. Push oft' as 
much of one-half as possible before lifting the knife: remove 
the remaining portion carefully and leave on the spoon exactly 
half a spoonful. 

To measure a quarter of a spoonful, divide a half-spoonful 
crosswise, the dividing line being a little nearer to the handle 
than to the point. A small spoon for measuring one-fourth of 
a teaspoonful is called a ''saltspoon" ; this is much larger than 
the saltspoons for table use. 

To measure one-eighth of a teaspoonful, divide a quarter 
of a spoonful diagonally into two equal parts. 

The indefinite quantity known as a ''speck,'* a "pinch," or 
a "few grains," means ordinarily about as much as will lie on 
the tip of a pointed knife blade — about one-fourth of a salt- 
spoonful or less. The quantities used in "individual" work 
being generally small, the "speck" or "few grains" must be 
regulated according to the amount of material used. 

A cupful of liquid is all that the cup will hold. 

A teaspoonful or a tablespoon ful of liquid is all that the 
spoon will hold. 

The capacity of ordinary teaspoons and tablespoons is a 
variable quantity, but the standard teaspoonful contains sixty 
drops. 

Note. — Small quantities of liquid are often measured by drops ; 
the kind of liquid, whether thick or thin, as well as the surface from 



COOKING AND MEASURING 57 

which they drop, influences size of drops. Drops from a thick-lipped 
bottle are larger than those from a thin-lipped one. It is usual to 
allow sixty drops of thin liquids, such as flavorings, etc., to a teaspoonful. 

Abbreviations and Equivalents 

A "few grains" or a "speck" (spk.) = about one- 
fourth of a saltspoonful (ssp.) 
4 saltspoonfuls = i teaspoonful (t. or tsp.) 
3 teaspoonfuls = i tablespoonful (tb. or tbsp.) 

i6 tablespoonfuls = i cupful (c.) 
I cupful = 1 pint (pt.) or 2 gills 

Approximate Measures of One Pound 
2 cups butter = i pound 
2 cups chopped meat = i pound 

2 cups granulated sugar = i pound 
2i cups powdered sugar =: i pound 

3 cups confectioners' sugar = i pound 
il cups rice = i pound 

4 cups white flour = i pound 

4 cups entire wheat flour = i pound 

42 cups graham flour = i pound 

Scant 3 cups granulated corn meal = i pound 

6 cups rolled oats = i pound 

U. S. Liquid Measure Metric Equivalents 

4 gills = I pint (pt.) In the metric system the liter is the 

2 pints = I quart (qt.) unit measure of capacity and 

4 quarts =: i gallon (gal.) the gram is the unit measure of 

31 5 gallons = I barrel (bbl.) weight. 

2 barrels = i hogshead (hhd.) 

Liquid Measure 

U. S. Dry Measure i liter = 0.94 quart 

2 pints = I quart (qt.) 

8 quarts = i peck (pk.) Dry Measure 

4 pecks = I bushel (bu.) i liter = i.io quarts 

Note. — When a quart of potatoes (or any other vegetable) is 
bought by dry measure, the law requires "heap" measure. This means 
that the measure itself must not only be full to the brim, but it must 
be heaped in the shape of a cone as high as the commodity itself will 
permit. 



58 



A COURSK IX HOUSEHOLD ARTS 



Number of cubic inches in U. S. Capacity Measures 
1 gallon contains 231 cubic inches i bushel contains 2150.42 cubic 
A standard half -pint measuring inches 

cup contains 14.43 cubic inches 



Avoirdupois Weight 

27^2 grains (gr.) = i dram (dr.) 

16 dr. = I ounce (oz.) 

16 oz. = I pound (lb.) 

100 lbs. = I hundredweight (cwt.) 

20 cwt. = I ton == 2000 lbs. 



Metric System 
I grain = 0.06 gram 
I avoirdupois ounce = 28.35 grams 
I pound = 453-59 grams 



Note. — The ton of 2240 pounds and the hundredweight of 112 
pounds (often called the long ton and the long hundredweight) are 
used in the United States Custom House and in wholesale transactions 
in coal and iron. 

Wood Measure 

(Used in measuring wood and other merchandise) 
16 cubic feet = i cord foot (cd. ft.) 
8 cord feet or 128 cubic feet = i cord (cd.) 

A cord of wood, as generally piled, is 8 ft. long, 4 ft. wide, and 
4 ft. high. 



CHAPTER VII 
Water in the Household 

The chief sources of water are rain, snow, springs, wells, 
rivers, and lakes. The ideal water is that which has been slowly 
filtered through sand and gravel and comes out as a spring, 
giving what is called "living water." In cities it is not possible 
to get enough of this for general use, and therefore water from 
other sources must be drawn upon. Though wells are supposed 
to give filtered water, in cities the ground is not clean enough ; 
so water from lakes and rivers is used, and persons are trained 
to watch them and keep them clean. 

At the present time there are few large cities where the 
water supply is not subjected to some kind of artificial purifi- 
cation. Filtration — that is, the passing of water through layers 
of sand — is the process most frequently employed. Many dif- 
ferent methods are applied to waters of dififerent quality, how- 
ever, and the purification of water on a large scale has become 
so complicated an art that special training is required for those 
who are to deal wdth the problem. 

While pure water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen, 
no chemically pure water is found in nature, because, owing to 
its great solvent and absorbent power, all natural water has 
taken up mineral or gaseous substances in passing through the 
air, as rain, etc., and later in passing over or through the earth. 
The substances thus dissolved by water may be either or<^anic 
or inorganic. 

The organic substances in solution may be either the products 
of the activities of plant and animal life or the substances arising 

59 



6o A COURSE IN HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

from the breaking down of these ; while the organisms them- 
selves, though not of course soluble, may, when of a nature to 
produce disease in human beings, constitute impurity of the 
most dangerous kind. Many of the organisms found in the 
water of lakes and rivers, etc., are harmless, but disease-pro- 
ducing forms do occur, and especially when the water has been 
contaminated with human waste, or sewage. 

Of the inorganic substances in solution, perhaps the most 
important from the domestic standpoint are the salts of calcium, 
or lime salts. \\^ater containing these is said to be "hard," 
which means that it contains mineral substances which destroy 
the power of soap to form a lather or froth readily. Insoluble 
compounds are formed instead, which separate as a curd and 
which have no cleansing properties. The greater the difficulty 
experienced in obtaining a lather and the greater the amount 
of soap required, the harder the water. A "soft" water, on the 
contrary, is one which, when shaken with a little soap, easily 
forms a lather that will last at least several minutes. 

Rain i^'atcr absorbs more or less carbon dioxide from various 
sources, and, soaking into the soil, often comes in contact with 
lime, magnesia, and other compounds. Water saturated with 
carbon dioxide will dissolve these substances, forming carbon- 
ates or other salts, which are soluble; such water is *'hard." 
When the hardness is caused by calcium carbonate, it is called 
''temporary" hardness, because it may be overcome by boiling. 
Boiling drives off the excess of carbon dioxide and precipitates 
the lime. The addition of washing soda (carbonate of soda), 
ammonia, or borax will cause the same precipitation and thus 
render the water soft. Any scum or sediment can then be 
removed by straining. 

The hardness which is due to sul])hates of lime and magnesia 
is said to be *']X"rmanent." because it cannot l.e removed b\- 



WATER IX THE HOUSEHOLD 6l 

boiling. Such water can be softened, however, by the addition 
of washing soda or other strongly alkaline substances. 

The degree of hardness varies so much in different waters 
that no exact rule can be given for the use of softening agents, 
but for ordinary cleansing and laundry purposes a general rule 
is to use one tablespoon of washing soda to one gallon of 
moderately hard water, first heating a portion of the water 
in which to dissolve the washing soda. 

For drinking, water should be free from harmful substances. 
Unclean water is dangerous, just as dust is dangerous, for we 
never know when disease germs may be present in either. 
Water from wells, springs, or from rivers which run through 
cities or towns is likely to receive sewage, and may thus com- 
municate disease, such as typhoid fever. There has been a great 
reduction in the death rate from typhoid fever in those cities 
where filter plants have been installed. 

While the carefully guarded water supply of most of our 
large cities aflfords a safe water for drinking purposes, it is said 
that nine-tenths of the country wells are more or less contami- 
nated and are growing worse. The ordinary shallow well. thirt\- 
feet or so deep, is usually fed, in whole or in part, from near-by 
sources, and is always an object of suspicion, as is water taken 
from rivers, small streams, etc. When there is the slightest 
reason to doubt the purity of drinking water, it should be boiled. 
W^ater w-hich has been boiled long enough to kill the germs con- 
tained in it is said to be sterilized ; that is, freed from germ life. 

Boiled water has a "flat" taste, due to the loss of the atmos- 
pheric gases which were driven off by boiling. The flat taste 
will disappear if the water is poured rapidly from one vessel to 
another a few times, or is shaken in a stoppered bottle. 

Distilled water is obtained by condensing the steam from 
boiling water in a closed receptacle. It also has a flat taste. 



62 A COURSE IX HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

The flavor may be restored, as in boiled water. Distilled water 
is free from germs. 

Experiment: Hold a cold plate over boiling water so that the vapor 
will strike the bottom of the plate. Drops of water will soon appear 
on the plate. This is distilled water. 

Water for cooking or drinking should always be freshly 
drawn. Water which has been standing over night in the pipes 
between the street and the cold water faucet should be drawn 
off every morning before any is taken for use. Never use for 
cooking or drinking the water from the hot water faucet. 
Since many pipes are made of lead or of brass, water standing 
in them for some time may become poisonous. Hot water is 
more likely to become so than cold, and soft water has greater 
solvent action than hard water on these metals. 

Forms of Water: Water is found in nature in three forms — 
as a solid (ice or snow ), as a liquid, and as a gas (steam ). 

Experiment : Melt a piece of ice in a saucepan placed over the heat. 
As the water heats, small bubbles appear on the bottom and sides of the 
saucepan. Soon they begin to rise slowly, after a time reaching the 
surface of the water and breaking there. This water is not very hot. 
as the finger may be held in it. The bubbles consist of gases from the 
air, which give to the water its usual flavor. As the water grows hotter, 
the small bubbles disappear ; larger bubbles, of steam, form in groups 
on the bottom of the saucepan, where the heat is greatest. The water 
at these points seems to be in motion. The groups become larger and 
the bubbles rise higher and higher, soon reaching the surface, and break- 
ing there rapidly with a slight noise : by this time the water is bubbling 
all over. This is boiling water. Boiliii^i water is biibbliin^ water. The 
thermometer shows that the temperature of boiling water is 212° F. 
Water freezes at 32° F. 

Steam is invisible. AMien the water in a teakettle is boiling, 
there is sometimes a space just beyond the spout where nothing 
can be seen. Mere is the true steam, or water in the form of a 
gas. Most gases are invisible. As the steam passes out beyond 



WATER IX THE HOUSEHOLD 63 

the spout, where it is cooler, the steam is condensed into watery 
vapor, which is commonly, though incorrectly, called steam. 

Freezing 

Salt and ice together make a freezing mixture several degrees 
colder than ice alone. Solids changing to liquids absorb heat 
from surrounding bodies. As the ice changes to liquid ( water) . 
it absorbs heat. Salt has a strong attraction for water, and 
makes the ice melt more quickly ; the salt also changes to a 
liquid, absorbing still more heat. The heat is taken by the ice 
and salt from the mixture which is to be frozen, and around 
which they are closely packed. The smaller the pieces of ice. 
the more quickly they change to liquid ; and the more salt used, 
the more quickly is the mixture frozen. If too much salt is 
used, the frozen mixture will be coarse-grained. The best 
proportion to use is three parts chopped ice and one part rock 
salt. Snow may be used instead of ice. 

As liquids expand in freezing, the can of the freezer should 
never be more than three-quarters full. If too full, the cover 
may be pushed up, allowing the salt water to get in. 

Directions for Freezing 

Place the can of the freezer in the proper position in the 
pail ; put in the dasher and pour in the mixture to be frozen. 
Cover, and adjust the handle so that it turns freely. Surround 
the can with alternate layers of ice and salt in the proportion 
given, beginning with the ice. As the ice and salt melt, more 
should be added to keep the freezer full. Turn steadily until 
the mixture becomes so stiff that turning is difficult. Wipe the 
cover, so that when it is removed no salt water can drop into 
the can. Take out the dasher, and with a long-handled spoon 
pack the frozen mixture solidly. Replace the cover, putting a 



64 A COURSE IX HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

cork in the opening. Cover the freezer with a thick cloth and 
set aside in a cool place. 

If not to be served for some time after making, the "cream'' 
or "ice" may be packed. In this case drain off water, remove 
can of frozen cream, and empty ice and salt from pail. Put a 
thick layer of ice in pail and replace can, and pack solidly, using 
four measures of ice to one of salt. Keep well covered in a cool 
place until wanted. 

Milk Sherbet 

2 c. sugar I c. lemon juice, strained i qt. milk 

Mix the sugar and the strained lemon juice ; put the milk 
into the freezer can and pour the lemon juice and sugar into it. 
Stir thoroughly, cover, and freeze. One-fourth teaspoonful 
of lemon extract may be added if desired. 

Lemon Water Ice 

Substitute water for milk in the above recipe. 

Ice Cream No. i 
I qt. thin cream t c. sugar 

I tb. vanilla 

Mix ingredients and freeze ; i pt. of heavy cream, mixed 
with 3 c. of milk, may be used instead of thin cream. 

Ice Cream No. 2 
I pt. milk, scalded i pt. cream 

1 c. sugar 2 eggs, beaten 

2 tb. flour I tb. vanilla 

Mix sugar and flour together ; add the hot milk slowly, 
stirring constantly. Pour the mixture into the upper part of a 
double boiler, place directly over the heat, and stir constantly 



WATER IX THE HOUSEHOLD 65 

until it boils; then cover and cook over boiling water lo to 
15 minutes. Pour the mixture very slowly into the beaten eggs, 
return to double boiler, and cook i minute. Cool, add vanilla 
and cream, and freeze. 

Ice Cream for One 

Put into a wide-mouthed glass jar or a water-tight cocoa 
or baking powder can I c. cream, 4 t. sugar, and 15 drops vanilla 
j^ lemon extract. Stir until sugar is dissolved. Cover, and 
place can or jar in a bowl or pail, and surround it with broken 
ice and salt in usual proportions — i part salt to 3 parts ice. 
Turn the can or jar back and forth constantly. Take oiT the 
cover occasionally, and scrape the frozen cream from the sides 
and stir thoroughly. Replace cover, and repeat the scraping, 
etc., until cream is evenly frozen. 



CHAPTER VIII 
Beverages and Fruits 

Water is used as a beverage, as a general cleansing agent, 
as an aid in the preparation of food by cleansing, chilling, 
softening, dissolving, diluting, etc., as a carrier of flavor, and 
as a medium for conveying heat to other substances. 

The making of beverages illustrates the use of water for 
dissolving, diluting, and as a carrier of flavor. 

Experiment i. Water as a solvent: Put i c. of sugar into a small 
saucepan ; add cold water, i t. at a time, and stir until sugar is dissolved. 

Experiment 2. Repeat Experiment i, substituting hot water for 
cold. 

Record the amount of water required in each case. Boil the sugar 
solutions 5 minutes ; put into a glass jar, warmed to prevent breaking. 
Cover and reserve. 

Experiment j. Water for diluting and as a carrier of flavor: 
Wash one lemon, cut in halves, and squeeze the juice into a measuring 
cup of glass, if possible. Note the quantity of juice. Divide the juice 
into two parts and put each part into a separate glass. Dilute, to taste, 
with water. Use sugar sirup for sweetening one and granulated sugar 
for sweetening the other. Compare as to consistency and time reciuired 
for completing the beverage. 

Inference from E.vperimoits. — Sweetening cold beverages 
with sugar sirup will save time. Sugar sirup will improve the 
consistency of a beverage, making it less thin and watery. 

Note. — The word dissolz'e means to disappear, to diffuse through a 
liquid so that the material cannot be separated by straining or by other 
ordinary means. 

Experiment. — Put a teaspoonful of laundry starch into half a glass 
of cold water and stir. The lumps fall apart and the starch is scattered 
through the water, giving it a milky appearance. When stirring ceases, 
the water soon becomes clear, the starch settling to the bottom. The 
starch docs not dissolz'c or disappear. 

66 



BEVERAGES AND FRUITS 67 

Tea 

Tea is made from the leaves of the tea plant, and is com- 
monly classed as green or blaek, the distinction being due to 
differences in the methods of curing. The young, tender leaves 
contain the least fiber and the most juice, and consequently 
produce the finest quality of tea. The more mature the leaves, 
the poorer the quality of tea produced. Green tea is prepared 
from fresh leaves withered by heat in hot pans or by steam, 
then rolled to break up the fiber, and finally "fired," or dried. 
Because of the rapid drying by artificial heat, the leaves retain 
their natural green color. Black tea receives similar prepara- 
tory treatment, but after the leaves are rolled and mashed till 
soft, they are allowed to ferment a certain length of time before- 
drying. This treatment lessens the amount of tannin and in- 
creases the proportion of flavoring substances. 

Teas may be classified as follows : 

1. Unfermented or green teas. Examples: gunpowder and 
hyson from China, and basket-fired and pan-fired from Japan. 

2. Partially fermented or oolong. R.vauiplc: h'ormosa 
oolongs. 

• 3. Fermented or black teas. Examples: black tea, English 
breakfast from China, and black teas from India and Ceylon. 

India and Ceylon teas are coming to the front more and 
more, and the importations from China falling ofi". 

Theine is the substance which gives to tea its stimulating 
properties. 

Tea should be used only in the form of an infusion; that is, 
it should be made by pouring boiling water upon the required 
amount of leaves and allowing it to stand a short time to *'draw" 
out or extract the flavor. It should never be boiled. P)oiling is 
objectionable for two reasons: first, the delicate aroma is lost. 



68 A COURSE IN HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

the flavoring substance going off with the steam ; and second, 
the leaves are made to yield their tannin and other substances, 
which cause digestive disturbances. The finest and most deli- 
cate portion is that poured off within the first 5 minutes. 

General proportions: Allow 1 1. of tea to i c. of boiling water. 
Freshly boiled water should be used. If stronger tea is desired, 
use less water or more tea. 

To make Tea 

Scald the teapot with boiling water ; put in the tea and pour 
on the boiling water. Let it stand where it will keep hot, but 
not boil, 3 to 5 minutes. Strain, and serve at once. 

Russian Tea 

4 t. tea Sweet preserve or cubes of 

I c. boiling water sugar 

Thin slices of lemon 

Put the tea into a heated teapot ; pour on the boiling water, 
cover, and let stand 3 to 5 minutes. Serve in glasses. Put a 
spoon into each glass to prevent breaking wdien tea is i)Oured 
in ; add a slice of lemon or a few drops of juice, and pour in a 
small quantity of the strong infusion. Add boiling water to 
dilute to desired strength. A candied cherry is sometimes 
added. 

Note. — hi Russia, sweet preserve is served b}^ preference with tea, 
a spoonful of preserve, then a "sup" of tea being taken. Pieces of loaf 
sugar are sometimes used instead. Milk is never used in Russian tea. 

If the tea extract is not used as soon as made, it should 
be strained from the leaves. A silver tea ball is convenient in 
making a small quantity of tea. 



BEVERAGES A XI) FRUITS 69 

Iced Tea 

Left-over tea strained immediately from the leaves may be 
chilled and served as iced tea. 

If fresh tea is made for this purpose, make double streuirth 
by using 2 teaspoon fuls of tea for each cup of boiling water. 
Have ready glasses or cups half -filled with cracked ice ; add 
lemon juice and powdered sugar to taste, and pour on the hot 
tea, being careful to prevent breaking by first putting a spoon 
into each glass. 

Note. — "All kinds of teas are not equally suitable for making iced 
tea," says Miss Susannah Usher in the Jonnial of Home Economics 
(June — July, 1915). "Some teas, especially the heavy-bodied India varie- 
ties, make infusions that turn turbid on cooling, . . . but they are delicious 
served hot with cream. Do not expect one and the same tea to be equally 
palatable and attractive served hot or cold, with cream or with lemon." 

References: Pitman Commercial Series. Tea: J. M, Walsh, Tea: 
Chinese Y ear-Book : Farmers' Bulletin 301, Home-^rozvn Tea: Bulletin 
Plant Industry 234. Cultivation and Manufacture of Tea in the United 
States. 

Coffee 

Coffee is made from the seeds of the berries of the coffee 
tree, which are dried, then roasted and ground. The berries 
resemble a cherry and contain two fiat seeds enveloped in a 
thick, leathery skin. This is removed and the seeds or "coft'ee 
beans" sorted according to size, so that they can be roasted 
evenly. The smallest berries, no matter where grown, re- 
ceive the name of ^locha and command the highest ])rice. 
lirazil stipplies the largest proportion of the Mocha and Java 
of commerce. If instead of two fiat seeds the l)errics have one 
round seed, these are carefully sorted out and sold under tlie 
name of "male berry" or "pea berry" coffee. They are sup- 
posed to have a finer fiavor than the common varieties, and, 
therefore, command a higher price. 



70 A COURSE IN HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

Coffee contains a stimulating substance, caffeine, similar in 
its nature to theine. It also contains flavoring substances and 
tannin. 

Roasting develops the tine aroma, which, being volatile, will 
(lisap])ear soon after grinding unless the coffee is kept in an 
air-tight can. 

The most economical way to make coffee and to obtain its 
full strength is to cover the coffee with cold water and let it 
stand for several hours, and then, just before serving the coffee, 
to heat the water to boiling point. It is, however, more com- 
monly made by boiling or by filtering. Coffee may be boiled, 
or it may be allowed merely to reach the boiling point. 

Coffee, if boiled violently, will lose its delicate aroma. 
To keep in the aroma, plug the spout of the coffee ])ot with 
soft paper or a cork. 

General proportions: For each cup of coffee allow 2 table- 
spoons of ground coffee, mixed with i tablespoon of cold water, 
to I cup of boiling water, and a crushed eggshell or a little egg- 
white. When several cups of coffee are made, less ground 
coffee may be allowed for each. 

Note. — Raw egg is often mixed with ground coffee to make the 
beverage clear. When heated, the egg as it cooks holds together particles 
of coffee which otherwise might float and render the liquid cloudy. 
Crushed eggshells are sometimes used for the same purpose because of 
the egg which adheres to them. The shells should be washed before the 
eggs are broken. "'Coffee clearers" may also be purchased. 

Boiled Coffee 

I c. ground coffee i c. cold water 

I Qgg or I egg-white 5 to 6 c. boiling water 

Scald a clean, well-aired coffee pot. Wash an Qgg, break 
and beat it slightly, and put it with the crushed shell and the 



HKVIvRAGES AM) FRUITS 7 1 

coffee into the coffee pot ; add I c. cold water and mix all 
thoroughly ; add the boiling water and stir well. Cover and boil 
gently 3 minutes. To free the spout from grounds, pour a little 
coffee into a cup. Pour it back into the coffee pot again, and 
repeat if necessary. Add the remaining half -cup of cold water 
and put coffee pot where it will keep hot without boiling. Let 
stand 5 to 10 minutes. Serve with hot cream or milk and sugar. 

The flavor of coffee ''settled" w^ithout the addition of cold 
water is preferred by some. 

If not served immediately, coffee should be strained from 
the grounds. Reheat to boiling point when needed. Cold coffee 
may be used for flavoring jellies, etc. 

Coffee No. 2 

I to 2 tb. ground coffee to each cup of cold water 
Put coffee in cold water, cover, and let stand several hours 
or over night. Heat slowly to boiling point. Strain the coffee, 
and use two or three times as much hot milk as coffee. Let 
stand a few moments before serving. If heated cream is added, 
use less milk. The coffee and cold water may be heated together 
without previous soaking, if a less strong beverage is desired. 

Filtered Coffee 

I c. coff'ee, ground fine 6 c. boiling water 

Use a coffee pot having a strainer of wire or cloth. Scald 
coffee pot with boiling water, empty, and put coffee pot into a 
pan of boiling water or on back of stove. Place strainer in 
coffee pot, put in the coffee, and pour on the boiling w^ater 
slowly, a little at a time. Cover and let stand a few moments 
to allow water to filter through each time after water is added. 
If desired stronger, pour the liquid through a second time, 



/- 



A COUKSI-: IN IIOL'SKHOLD ARTS 



being- careful that coffee is kept hot. Fiherecl coff'ee should not 
be boiled. Serve with hot milk or cream and sugar. 

Black or "After-Dinner" Coffee 

Allow ^ c. ground coffee to each cup of boiling water, and 

make as directed for Filtered Coff'ee. Black coffee is served 

without milk, but may be sweetened or not. 

References : Dept. Agricultural Bureau Statistics, Bulletiu 79, 
Coffee: Pitman Commercial Series, Coffee: J. M. Walsh, Coffee. 

Cocoa 

Cocoa and chocolate are both prepared from the seeds of 
the cacao, a small tropical tree. The seeds, or "cocoa beans," 
are dried, and roasted to develop the flavor. The outer cover- 
ing is then removed. This covering makes cocoa shells, while 
the beans are broken into cocoa ''nibs," or cracked cocoa. The 
prepared cocoa is made from the nibs, and much of the fat, 
known as "cocoa butter," is pressed out, the cocoa being 
powdered and frequently mixed with other substances, as sugar, 
starch, and flavoring. All of the fat is left in chocolate. Since 
cocoa butter does not become rancid readily, it is often used 
in confectionery, etc., instead of butter. It is sometimes called 
"caramel butter." 

Cocoa and chocolate contain a stimulating substance, called 
theobromine, similar in its nature to theine and caff'eine. 
Unlike tea and coffee, cocoa contains valuable food material. 

4 t. cocoa ^ c. boiling water 

2 t. sugar 1 4 c. milk 

Ileat the milk in a double boiler until small bubbles appear 
around the edge ; mix cocoa and sugar thoroughly in a sauce- 
l)an : add boiling water and boil 3 minutes : add the scalded milk 



BEVERAGES AND FRUITS 7*3 

and bring to the boiling point. If not served at once, cover, 
to prevent film from forming. Beating until frothy will also 
help to prevent" the formation of a film. Equal parts of milk 
and water may be used. If a richer cocoa is wanted, use less 
water. The quantity of cocoa needed varies slightly, according 
to the kind used. 

Chocolate 

1 1 squares unsweetened 4 tb. sugar " 

chocolate 2 c. milk 

2 c. boiling water 

Scald the milk ; scrape the chocolate, mix with sugar and a 
little of the water ; heat the mixture in a saucepan and stir until 
smooth. Add remainder of the water and the scalded milk. 
Boil 2 minutes. Beat with an ^^^ beater until foamy. Serve 
with or without whipped cream. 

Milk is heated for three reasons : First, to find out whether it is 
sweet; second, to cook more quickly the food with which it is combined; 
third, to kill the germs which cause the souring of milk. If milk is to 
be combined with other materials, it is safer to scald it first, unless one 
is certain that it is fresh. It may not taste sour, but may curdle when 
heated, and thus spoil the food in which it is used. Milk is said to be 
"scalded" when heated until a film forms over the top; this film will 
not form if the milk is closely covered while heating. The film forms 
at too low a temperature to kill germs ; so if milk is heated to make it 
keep sweet longer, it is better to heat it in a double boiler until small 
bubbles appear around the edge. It should then be cooled quickly, and 
kept covered in a cool place. 

FRUIT 

. Fruit, from the botanist's standpoint, is the seed-bearing 
portion of the plant. A glance at the general composition of 
fruits will show that they are watery foods, containing as they 
do an average of from 80 to 90 per cent of water. 



74 -\ COURSK IX HorSEHOLD ARTS 

Average composition of fresh fruit (Food and the Princi- 
ples of Dietetics, Hutchison) : 

Per cent 

Water 85 to 90 

Protein 0.5 

Fat 0.5 

CarboliNclrates 5r to loi 

Cellulose 25 

Mineral matter 0.5 

Fruits which contain more than 80 per cent of water are 
sometimes grouped together as "flavor fruits," while those with 
a larger proportion of solids — 20 per cent or more — are called 
"food fruits." Among the former are strawberries, ])eaches, 
lemons, pineapples, etc., while bananas are a good example of 
the latter. 

The flavor of fruits is due principally to the sugar and fruit 
acids they contain, but the special flavor which is characteristic 
of each kind is almost entirely due to volatile substances present 
in such small amount that they cannot be determined b}- the 
usual chemical methods. In some cases, however, as in the 
strawberry, a volatile oil with a pronounced strawberry flavor 
has been extracted from the fat of the dried berries, and the 
flavor of the oil found in the yellow rind of oranges and lemons 
is well known. \Miile the exceedin^lv small amount of flavor- 
ing substance present adds little if any to the nutritive value 
of fruits, yet the agreeable flavors and odors add materially to 
their attractiveness and palatability ; and, as previously men- 
tioned, there is reason to lielieve that palatable foods are really 
digested more easily than those which are not, because of the 
greater abundance of digestive juices produced. 

The food material in fruit is chiefly in the form of carbo- 
hydrate, one-half to three-fourths of which is sugar, the pro- 



BEVERAGi:S AND l-KUITS 75 

portion varying with the stage of growth and the degree of 
ripeness. 

The amount of cellulose varies greatly in different fruits, 
diminishing during the ripening of the fruit, while the amount 
of sugar increases. 

The mineral constituents of fruit are of considerahle im- 
portance, and being in combination with the fruit acids present, 
form compounds which are of especial value to tlie body. 
These, together with the flavoring substances, not only stimu- 
late the appetite and supply, in an agreeable form, the acids 
which man seems to crave and require, but also benefit the body 
in other ways. 

Since, as has been said, considerable bulk is a necessity in 
the diet, bulky foods, like fruits and vegetables, are of im])or- 
tance because they usually contain a fairly large proportion of 
indigestible material, such as cellulose, etc.. which stimulates 
the action of the intestine. Dried fruits and some preserved 
fruits are much more concentrated, comparing favorably with 
some of the cereals and other dry vegetable foods in the total 
amount of nutriment. For example, dates and raisins contain 
nearly 75 per cent, prunes 71 per cent, and figs 68 per cent of *' 
carbohydrates, chiefly sugar. 

Since the chief nutrients of fruits are carbohydrates, they 
are naturally and properly used with foods richer in protein, 
such as cereals, peas and beans, nuts, eggs, milk, meats, and 
fish. 

Uncooked fruits should be w^ashed, unless one can be quite 
certain that they have not been exposed to uncleanly conditions. 
Washing of small fruits, like berries, may cause a slight loss 
of flavor, but it seems prudent to sacrifice a little flavor for 
the sake of removing dirt and dust, and possiblx dangerous 
organisms. Fruits with a firm, dry skin, such as apples and 



'jd A COURSE IX HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

]3ears. have less dust adhering to them than fruits with a soft, 
sticky surface, such as berries, dates, figs, etc. 

Overripe fruit is often injurious, probably because it has 
begun to ferment; and raw, unripe fruit may also be harmful, 
either because of the large proportion of hard cell tissue or 
])ossibly because of the excess of acid in tlie green fruit. Cook- 
ing will render green fruit both wholesome and palatable, since 
it softens the texture and thus allows the digestive juices to act 
upon it more readily, and seems also to decrease the acidity. 

Fresh fruits in good condition are both wholesome and 
inviting, and add greatly to the attractiveness of a meal. In 
general, fruit is more refreshing when cool. Some fruits, like 
melons, should be thoroughly chilled. Bright-colored fruits, 
by themselves or combined with a few green leaves, make a 
pleasing table decoration. 

Apples should be wiped, or washed if necessary, and then 
rubbed till dry, and polished. 

Bananas may be wiped and served whole, or peeled, sliced, 
and served with sugar and cream ; or first sprinkled witli lemon 
juice and then with shredded cocoanut. They may also be com- 
bined with strawberries or other fruits. 

Berries. Look over carefully, then put them, not too many 
at a time, into a strainer or colander, and gently pour cold 
water over them. Avoid crushing. Drain the washed berries 
in the strainer placed over a dish. Reserve the water which 
drains through. Chill the berries, but do not add sugar until 
they are served, as it will extract the juice and destroy their 
firmness. 

Berries which are bruised, but in good condition otherwise, 
may be washed and allowed to stand covered with sugar ; then 
crushed and strained, with or without heating. Add the juice 
to the water drained from the washed berries to use for flavor- 
ing pudding sauce or fruit lemonade. 



BEVERAGES AXD FRUITS 7/ 

Raspberries or strazvberries, when served in large quantity, 
should be put into several small dishes rather than into one large 
dish, as they will be crushed by their own weight. 

Strawberries are hulled, unless exceptionally fine, and cream 
and sugar may be passed with them ; or they may be grouped 
around mounds of sugar in the center of each dish. If the 
berries are washed, the washing should be done before the hulls 
are removed. 

Cantaloupes and muskmehns. Melons should be ripe and 
thoroughly chilled. A ripe melon is soft to the touch when 
pressed on the blossom end, and the stem can be readily 
separated from the fruit. Small melons should be divided in 
halves, crosswise, the seeds removed, and the melon chilled. 
One-half is served to each person. 

Larger melons may be cut into halves, lengthwise, then cut 
into long strips, and placed rind down on a platter covered with 
grape or other green leaves. 

The cantaloupe is a choice variety of muskmelon, said to have 
originated from muskmelon seeds brought from Armenia to Europe, 
nearly four centuries ago. Cantaloupes were so named either from 
Cantalupo, a town in Italy, or from the Villa Cantaluppi in the Papal 
States, where they were first grown. 

Farmers' Bulletin 193, Experiment Station Work, states that: "The 
term 'muskmelon' is here used in a wide, generic sense, to include not 
only the furrowed, hard-rind melons known as 'cantaloupes.' but also 
the netted, soft-rind kinds known as 'nutmeg' or 'netted' melons. 
The term 'cantaloupe' is thus confined to a particular class of musk- 
melons." 

According to the same bulletin "the Rocky ford muskmelon ... is 
simply the Netted Gem variety as selected and improved by growers 
in the region of Rockyford in the Arkansas Valley, Colorado, where 
. . . ideal conditions apparently exist for the production of melons of 
the highest quality. The Rockyford variety is now grown extensively 
in other parts of the United States, and probably a large proportion of 
the melons sold in Eastern markets under this name are derived from 
this source or are simply the ordinary Netted Gem produced by local 



y8 A COURSE IN HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

growers. The true Rockyford melon does not come into the market in 
any quantity before the middle of August.'' 

This Bulletin continues : "According to P. K. Blinn, of the Colorado 
Station, a perfect Rockyford cantaloupe should be slightly over four 
inches in diameter and about four and five-eighths inches long ; it should 
have silver-gray netting that stands out like thick, heavy lace, practically 
covering the entire melon, save the well-defined slate-colored stripes ; 
these should run the whole length of the melon, clear-cut as if grooved 
out with a "round chisel, and terminating at the blossom end in a small 
button. The interstices in the netting should be light olive green, that 
turns slightly yellow when the melon is ready for market. . . . The flesh 
should be thick and firm, of a smooth texture, and free from water\ 
appearance, rich and melting in flavor. The shipping and keeping quali- 
ties depend largely on the solidity of the melon, so the seed cavity should 
be small and perfectly filled with seed. The color of the flesh near the 
rind should be dark green, shading lighter toward the seed cavit3% which 
should be salmon or orange in color. The flesh is often mottled with 
salmon, and not uncommonly the entire flesh is of that color." 

Cherries. Look them over and remove imperfect ones. 
Serve cherries with the stems on and without separating clusters. 

Ciirraiits should be washed, drained, and chilled, and may 
be stemmed or not, as preferred. Fine clusters are sometimes 
crystallized by dipping first in beaten egg-white diluted with 
a tablespoonful of cold water, then into granulated sugar, and 
dried. Raspberries may be served with currants. 

Grapes are most attractive with the *' bloom" on. It is safer, 
however, to wash those bought in the market by allowing cold 
water to run throtigh the bunches, and then to drain and chill 
them. 

Grapefruit or Pouwla. Wash fruit and cut in halves, cross- 
wise. Serve one-half to each person. Remove all seeds. Insert 
a sharp-pointed knife between the rind and the pulp, and cut 
all round the inside. Cut the pulp away from the membrane 
between the sections, then, inserting the knife under the core, 
cut it free from the skin. Take out tlie core and membranes, 
leaving only the pul]). A ])air of scissors may l)e used instead 



BEVERAGES AND FRUITS 79 

of a knife. Chill the fruit and serve with powdered sugar. 
The pulp may be served in glasses. 

Note. — Poiiiola is believed to l)e the oldest name for this fruit, and 
is the one commonly used by horticulturists. The name grapefruit is 
thought to have originated from the fact that the fruit grows in clusters, 
like grapes. Another name sometimes used is "shaddock," but this term 
is more properly applied to another variety which is much larger, of a 
different shape, and, to American tastes, of inferior quality. — Farmers' 
Bulletin i6g. 

Oranges should be wiped or washed, if served with the skins 
on. Serve whole or in halves and prepare like grapefruit, with 
pulp in the peel cut to form baskets. A simpler way is to cut 
the peel into six or eight sections lengthwise, beginning at the 
blossom end and cutting almost to the stem end ; loosen the skin 
from the orange and fold the points of the peel inward. The 
sections of orange may be separated or not. Or the peel, with 
the exception of a narrow band around the middle, may be re- 
moved. Cut the band at one point and separate the sections 
of pulp, leaving them attached only by the band of peel. 

Peaches. Use a towel or a soft brush to remove the "down" 
from the skins, and serve the fruit cold. Peaches may be 
peeled, sliced, and served with cream and sugar, or with sugar 
alone. 

Pineapples. The separate "leaves" which form the crown 
can be easily pulled otit from a ripe pineapple. To prepare, cut 
off the skin and take out every remnant of the "eyes." Hold 
the fruit by the crown while preparing, or use a strong fork. 
Pineapple may be sliced lengthwise or across, the core in either 
case being discarded. Slicing lengthwise instead of crosswise 
cuts the fruit across the grain, and so makes it more tender. 
Pineapple may be served in slices, in small pieces, or shredded. 
To shred : after paring and removing the eyes, use a strong 
silver fork to tear off pieces lengthwise, or cut slices crosswise. 



8o A fOURSK IX HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

Put two or three slices together on a plate and shave them very 
thin lengthwise, cutting round and round until the core is 
reached. Put the shredded pineapple in a serving dish with 
sugar to taste, cover closely, and let stand several hours or over 
night in the refrigerator to chill thoroughly. 

Strawberries, halved or crushed and mixed with sugar, may 
l)e added to the pineapple before chilling ; or cherries, stoned 
and sweetened ; or bananas, sliced and sprinkled with sugar ; 
or orange pulp or juice. 

The prepared fruit is sometimes served in the hollow ''shell" 
of a large pineapple from which the pulp has been dug out. 
To prepare the "3hell," cut off the base of the pineapple so that 
it will stand square. Without removing the leafy crown, cut 
a slice from the top and reserve this to use as a cover. Dig out 
the pulp with a fork or with a sharp knife, being careful not to 
break the skin. Fill the shell with the fruit, replace the top, 
and chill the whole ; or sweeten the fruit, put it into a bowl, 
cover, and put into the chilled shell just before serving. 

Watermelon. Chill thoroughly and wipe wdth a soft cloth. 
Cut a slice from each end, and then divide the melon into halves 
crosswise. Use a sharp knife to cut around the pink pulp, but 
do not remove it from the melon. Place each half on a large, 
flat dish, covered with a doily, or green leaves, if convenient. 
Use a large spoon for serving the pulp. 

Or, cut the melon into slices and these into quarters. Or 
divide the pulp of thicker slices into separate portions. 

Cooking Fruits 

Since fruits, when fresh, contain so large a proportion of 
water, little or no additional water is needed in cooking tliem. 
Before dried fruits can be softened by cooking, the lost water 
must be restored by soaking in cold water for several hours. 



BEVERAGi:S AND IKUITS 8l 

Fruits are dried to ]:)revent their s])()ilini;- b\- molds and 
l)acteria, which, hke other plants, cannot grow unless they have 
sufficient moisture. 

In order still further to prevent decay, and also to improve 
their appearance, chemical substances are often used in the 
l)reparation of dried fruits ; and as some of these substances 
niay be harmful, it is advisable for this reason, as well as because 
of the dust and dirt which adhere to the sticky surface, always 
to wash dried fruits thoroughly. If fruit is very hard and dry, 
it should be soaked in slightly warm water for a short time 
before it is washed. 

General mile for cooking dried fruits: Wash thoroughly, 
but quickly, in cold or slightly warm water, rubbing the fruit 
between the hands. Having changed the w^ater frequently until 
the fruit is clean, cover with fresh water and let fruit soak 
several hours, if possible. Cook, until soft, in the water in 
which it was soaked. Long soaking, then cooking WMth intense 
heat for a few moments, gives a flavor most like that of fresh 
fruit. 

The fruits commonly dried are apples, pears, peaches, apri- 
cots, plums (prunes), and grapes (raisins and currants). 

Note. — Currants are very small grapes, dried. Being first brought 
from Corinth, in Greece, they were called "Corinths." a word which in 
time assumed its present form of "currants." 

Steamed Apples 

Wipe, pare, and core sour apples ; ptit them in a shallow dish. 
Place the dish with the apples in a steamer or squash strainer, 
over boiling water. Cover and cook until apples are tender, but 
not broken. Serve hot, with butter, sugar, and nutmeg or 
cinnamon : or serve cold, with cream, plain or whipped, sweet- 



82 A COURSE IN HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

ened and flavored ; or the juice may be sweetened, flavored with 
lemon juice and rind, and poured over the apples. 

Steamed apples make a palatable addition to cooked break- 
fast cereals. 

Baked Apples 

Wipe and core tart apples : they may be pared or not. Put 
them into an agate or earthenware baking dish ; fill the center 
of each with sugar, and add spice if desired. Use i t. of water 
to each apple, and pour it around, not over them. Bake 30 to 
45 minutes, or until apples are soft, basting them every 10 
minutes. Place apples in serving dish and pour the juice over 
them. Serve cold. 

Sweet apples also may be baked. Serve with cream and 
sugar. 

Apple Sauce 

Wipe, quarter, core, and pare sour apples. Put into a sauce- 
pan with enough water to cover the bottom of saucepan : use 
more if apples are not juicy. Cook slowly, and stir occasion- 
ally to keep from burning. When soft, sweeten to taste, a 
general rule being to use i c. of sugar to 7 or 8 large, tart apples. 
To flavor, add ground cinnamon or nutmeg, or both : or if 
apples are not tart, lemon juice and rind may be used. A very 
little salt will improve the flavor. The sauce may be strained 
or not. 

Coddled Apples or Apple Compote 

Make a sirup by boiling together i c. sugar and 2 c. of water 
3 minutes ; wii)e, pare, and quarter 8 sour apples : cook as many 
pieces of a])ple as will float in the sirup : remove api:)lc when 
soft and add more. When all are cooked, boil the siru]) until 



BEVERAGES AND FRUITS 83 

it is slightly thickened, and pour over the apples. Apples may 
be pared and cooked whole, in which case a larger quantity of 
sirup will be needed ; turn the apples when the under part 
is soft, to cook the other side. Flavor the sirup with lemon rind 
and juice, or a piece of stick cinnamon, or with a few cloves. 
Serve apples cold, with whipped cream. 

Cranberry Sauce 

2 c. cranberries i c. sugar 

I c. water 

Pick over and wash cranberries, and put them with the 
water into a saucepan ; cover and cook 8 minutes, or until skins 
burst. Add sugar and boil 5 minutes longer. Strain or not, 
as preferred. 

Cranberry Sauce No. 2 

I qt. cranberries li c. granulated sugar 

J c. water | t. salt 

Put berries and water in a saucepan, cover, and cook until 
soft ; mash gently with a spoon, to break the skins ; remove 
from stove and add the sugar and salt. Do not cook after the 
sugar is added. 

Cranberry Sauce No. 3 

I qt. cranberries I2 c. granulated sugar 

1 1 c. l3oiling water 

Cover and cook slowly 15 minutes. Do not stir, as fruit is 
to be kept whole. Care will be necessary to prevent burning. 



84 A COURSK IX HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

Jellied Cranberry Sauce 

1 qt. cranberries 2 c. granulated sugar 

2 c. water 

Make a sirup by boiling sugar and water together 5 minutes ; 
skim, add berries, and cook slowly, without stirring, until berries 
are soft. Serve cold. 

Baked Bananas 

6 bananas Juice of i lemon 

2 tb. butter, melted J c. sugar 

Use firm bananas, not over-ripe. Remove skins, cut bananas 
in halves lengthwise, and place in a shallow baking dish. Mix 
melted butter, sugar, and lemon juice, and spread half of the 
mixture over bananas, and use remainder for basting fruit 
while baking. Bake 20 minutes in a slow oven. 

The bananas, covered with the sirup and cooked in an agate 
saucepan over moderate heat instead of in the oven, are less 
liable to burn. 

Baked Rhubarb 

i^ c. sugar 4 c. cut rhubarb 

Wash rhubarb and cut, without peeling, into inch pieces. 
Put into an earthenware dish and add the sugar. Mix well, 
cover, and let stand over night, or until a considerable amount 
of sirup is formed. Bake in a very moderate oven until rhubarb 
is tender. Rhubarb sprinkled with sugar may be baked imme- 
diately without extracting juice. Rhubarb, with half the quan- 
tity of pineapple cut in half-inch cubes, makes an agreeable 
variation. 



BEVERAGES AND FRUITS 85 

Stewed Prunes No. i 

^ lb. prunes Cold water to cover 

Wash prunes thoroughly ; cover with cold water and let 
stand several hours or over night. Put prunes and water into 
a saucepan and cook slowly until fruit is soft, but not broken. 
Add sugar, if desired, and cook a few minutes longer. The rind 
and juice of half a lemon may be added. Serve cold. 

Stewed Prunes No. 2 

Prepare prunes as in No. i. Put soaked prunes into the 
upper part of a double boiler ; place directly over the heat and 
boil 5 minutes ; then cover, and place the upper over the lower 
part of double boiler containing boiling water. Cook until 
prunes are soft. 

Prunes cooked by this method have a rich flavor and the 
juice is thick and sirupy, instead of thin and watery. 

Prunes and Cranberries 

I c. prunes Water to cover 

I qt. cranberries i c. sugar 

Wash prunes, cover with cold water, and let stand till 
plump. Put prunes with water into a saucepan and cook until 
soft ; remove stones. Return prunes and juice to saucepan and 
add cranberries. Cook, stirring occasionally, until cranberries 
are soft ; then add sugar and cook until mixture is thick. Serve 
cold. Cream, plain or whipped, may be added, and more sugar 
if desired. 



86 A COURSK IX IIOUSEIIOLU ARTS 



Ste\ved Figs and Apples 

I lb. figs J lb. evaporated apples 

Cold water to cover Juice and grated rind of 

I to 2 tb. of sugar J lemon 

Wash fruit thoroughly ; remove any imperfect portions. 
Cut or chop the figs into small pieces, and put into top of double 
boiler with the apples. Cover with cold water and let stand 
I hour or longer. Put top of double boiler over the lower part, 
which is one-third full of cold water, and cook slowly until figs 
are soft. Add the lemon rind and juice and sugar, and cook a 
few moments longer. Serve cold, with or without cream. 



CHAPTER IX 
Vegetables 

All plants are made up of innumerable cells having walls 
of cellulose. The cells contain the protoplasm, or living sub- 
stance, in which lies the nucleus or center of cell activity. 
Within the cells, in most cases, may be found minute starch 
grains, and dissolved in the cell sap are sugars, mineral matters 
of various kinds, and the volatile oils and other substances to 
which their flavors are due. 

Early in the growth of the plant, wood cells begin to develop 
and grow into a fibrous substance that may be torn or pulled 
apart like threads. This is ''woody fiber," an example of which 
may be seen in the "threads" or stringy portion of the coarser 
celery stalks, or the tough, hard fibers of beets and turnips in 
the late spring. 

\>getables are usually best when young, because the cellu- 
lose is then tender and the flavor delicate. When the cellulose 
becomes old and tough, the digestive juices do not so readily 
reach the nutriment inside the cells; and such cellulose, if too 
abundant, is believed to be the cause of digestive disturbances. 
The flavoring substances also become so plentiful as to make 
the vegetables '"strong" and bitter, or otherwise unpalatable, 
like radishes, for example, when old. 

Freshness is almost as important as tenderness. Vegetables 
when gathered are still living things, and the ferments or 
enzymes in their tissues which are concerned in their ripening 
processes are still active, and may so coutinue for a long time. 
The ripening of green tomatoes after they are picked from {hv 

87 



8S A COURSE I.\ HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

vines is due to the action of such ferments, and the loss of 
the sweetness in green corn and peas is also believed to be 
caused by ferments. 

Note. — While it is true that the terms "enzymes" and ''ferments" 
are not synonymous, it is sufficiently accurate for our purpose to use 
them interchangeably. 

Wilting of vegetables is caused by the loss of water through 
evaporation. Wilting, as well as other undesirable changes, 
may be delayed by keeping vegetables in a refrigerator or other 
cool place. Salad plants, after washing, may be wrapped in a 
cloth or put into a clean paper bag or covered pail, and kept 
in a cool place. 

If already wilted, they may be freshened, to some extent at 
least, by standing in cold water. With young vegetables a few- 
moments only will be necessary ; old ones often require many 
hours. 

Withered or badly wilted vegetables, or those which have 
lost their fresh color and become yellowish or brown, should 
be avoided, having lost flavor and quality. Those which have 
begun to decompose should be rejected, particularly if they are 
to be eaten raw, as the molds, bacteria, etc., on or in the plants 
are sometimes the cause of illness more or less serious. 

Cleanliness in handling, marketing, storing, and preparing 
food for the table is in all cases important, but is particularly 
necessary in the case of green vegetables or other foods which 
are eaten raw. As vegetables usually grow near the ground, 
earthy matter may adhere to them, and fertilizing materials 
also, which may be of a dangerous nature. If the vegetables 
are afterwards exposed to street dust and dirt, the possibility 
of contamination is increased, and especially if they are not 
handled in a cleanly way. The micro-organisms present often 
include those which cause typhoid fever and the intestinal 



VEGETABLES 89 

disturbances so common in summer. Green vegetables, there- 
fore, should always be looked over carefully, all bits of foreign 
substances removed, and the plants washed thoroughly in 
several waters. Hasty rinsing under the faucet or in a pan 
of water seldom frees lettuce, spinach leaves, etc., from sand, 
and is even less likely to remove other undesirable material, 
if present. Green plants, such as cabbage and cauliflower, may 
become the lodging place of insects or other forms of animal 
life. These vegetables, therefore, should be soaked half an 
hour or more in cold, salted water. 

Vegetables may, for convenience, be classified as follows : 
cereals, ''root crops," herbaceous or green vegetables, vegetable 
''fruits," flower-heads, legumes. 

The cereals, among vegetable foods, are first in importance, 
including as they do nearly all the bread-making grains of the 
world. 

"Root Crops." Next comes the group of plants which store 
up during the summer a supply of reserve material in thickened 
roots, which may be, like beets, true roots ; or enlarged under- 
ground stems, or tubers, like the potato ; or bulbs, like the onion 

While botanically these belong to many different groups, 
from the standpoint of food value their common characteristic 
of producing underground parts filled with nutritive material 
makes it sufficiently accurate for the present purpose to include 
all such vegetables under the head of ''root crops." These may 
be divided roughly into two main classes : 

(i) Starch-yielding vegetables, like potatoes. 

(2) Succulent or ''juicy" root crops, so called because of 
the large proportion of water or "juice" they contain — 85 to 
90 per cent, on an average. Of these, beets, carrots, parsnips, 
turnips, and onions are the most common. ^ 

The chief nutritive ingredients of the succulent vegetables 



90 A COURSI-: IX HUL'SEllUl.i) ARTS 

are sugar and other substances dissolved in the watery plant 
juices. 

These succulent vegetables, as a class, possess marked flavors 
and odors, due to volatile oils and similar substances. They 
are appetizing and generally relished, and tlieir use often 
renders palatable an otherwise flavorless dish or meal. 

The tubers and root vegetables together, roughly speaking, 
contain from 70 to 90 per cent of water and from 10 to 30 per 
cent of solid material, the greater i)art of which is some form 
of carbohydrate. Small quantities of nitrogenous or protein 
substances are present, and, compared with most food materials, 
considerable quantities of mineral matters or ''ash." 

Green Vegetables. This group includes leaves, stems, stalks, 
the so-called "pot-herbs" or "greens," seed-pods, and, in gen- 
eral, those parts of plants in which water is very abundant, 
averaging 85 to 95 per cent ; for example, cabbage, lettuce, 
spinach, and asparagus. 

The mineral substances in green vegetables and in similar 
foods include potassium, iron, phosphorus, and sulphur. 
Some of these are in combination with citric and other plant 
acids, in forms which the body can use. Not all combinations 
of mineral matter are of equal value to the body, but some of 
those which the body requires are more abundant in fruits and 
succulent vegetables than in most other kinds of food ; so that 
if for any reason the body lacks these foods for a long time, 
disease will result. 

Although green vegetables, in spite of their solid appearance, 
contain a larger proportion of water than milk contains, yet 
they have a decided value in the diet. Their value lies (i) in 
the amount and kinds of mineral matter present; (2) in their 
appetizing qualities ; (3) in their flavor and appearance ; (4) in 
the bulk which they give the diet; (5) in the variety which 



VEGETABLES 9 1 

they make possible: and (6) in the presence of vitamines 
which exist in the vegetable kingdom, and which are necessary 
to the normal growth and nutrition of animal tissue. 

Vegetable fruits include tomatoes, okra. squash, pumpkins, 
cucumbers, eggplant, peppers. 

Among flower-heads used as food, the cauliflower is the 
most common. 

Legumes. The legumes or pulses include many varieties 
of beans, peas, and lentils. Though green beans and peas are 
not so highly nutritive as the dried seeds, they are more deli- 
cate and apparently are more easily digested. (See Legumes, 
page 271.) 

Preparation of Vegetables for Cooking: Wash thoroughly ; 
pare, peel, or scrape, according to the kind. Let them stand 
in cold water to keep them crisp, or to freshen them when 
wilted, or to prevent discoloration. 

Cooking. Cook in freshly boiling, salted water, enough to 
cover, and keep the water boiling. Allow one teaspoonful of salt 
to one quart of water. In the case of delicate green vegetables, 
as peas, spinach, etc., salt should not be added until they are 
nearly done. 

To preserve the color, cook green vegetables uncovered. 
To lessen the flavor and odor of cabbage, onions, and turnips, 
cook them uncovered in a large quantity of water ; if the water 
is changed once or twice during cooking, more of the strong 
odor and flavor will be lost. 

Time. The time required for cooking will vary according 
to the freshness, age, and size of the vegetables. They should 
be cooked only until tender, and served as soon after cooking 
as possible. Potatoes and root vegetables are tender or *Mone'' 
when a fork will penetrate them easily. 

Overcooking causes a loss of flavor and develops a strong 
taste and odor. It also injures the appearance : the loss of green 



9-2 A COURS1-: IX HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

color may be taken as a measure of the overcooking. Green 
vegetables cooked until brown or yellow no longer possess a 
delicate flavor; vegetables such as cabbage and cauliflower, if 
cooked only just long enough to make them tender without loss 
of their delicate color, will usually be digested without difBculty. 
The water in which vegetables have been cooked is called 
"vegetable stock." Into this a considerable portion of the solu- 
ble mineral matter, sugar, etc., may escape. The loss when 
such vegetables as carrots, etc., are cut into small pieces may 
amount to one-third of the total food material present. \ ege- 
table stock should, therefore, if of agreeable flavor, be used in 
making sauces for vegetables or as a basis for soups. 

Note. — To give additional flavor, vegetables are sometimes cooked 
in the water in which meat has been cooked; and a little meat juice 
used to flavor the less expensive vegetable foods is often an important 
item when expense must be closely calculated. 

Experiments have shov^n that when vegetables are steamed, 
only about one-third as much material is lost as wdien they are 
boiled : and when baked, there is little loss except the water, 
w^hich is driven of¥ by the heat. 

Serving. Vegetables may be served plain, with salt, pepper, 
and butter, or with a cream, milk, or stock sauce. 

SeasoJiiiig. General rule: Two level tablespoonfuls of 
butter, one-half teaspoonful of salt, and one-fourth saltspoon- 
ful of pepper for each pint of cooked vegetables. 

Sauce for Vegetables 

1 tb. butter i c. milk or ^ c. milk and 

2 tb. flour ^ c. vegetable stock 
^ ssp. white pepper J t. salt 

Scald the milk ; melt the butter, add the flour, and mix 
thoroughly. Cook until mixture bubbles : do not allow it to 



VEGETABLES 93 

brown. Remove from fire and add milk gradually, about one- 
third at a time. Stir until smooth each time after adding milk. 
Return to tire, add seasoning, and stir until mixture boils. If 
not served immediately, cover to prevent a film from forming. 

Beets 

Wash beets, being careful not to break the skins ; leave on 
the roots and about an inch of the leaf stems, to prevent loss 
of sugar in the water. Put beets into a stewpan with a generous 
supply of boiling water and boil until tender, from i to 4 hours, 
according to the age of the beets. If they are tender, plunge 
them into cold water and rub ofT the skins. Serve hot, sliced, 
with butter, salt, and pepper ; or cold, sliced, and covered with 
vinegar. 

Carrots 

Young carrots may be cooked in a very little water. - The 
flavor of old carrots becomes strong and the center grows 
hard and woody. When this stage is reached, only the deep 
yellow outer layers are desirable for food. 

Boiled Carrots 

Wash and if necessary scrub, and scrape off the skin. Cook 
whole, if small, or cut in thirds. Cook in sufficient salted, boil- 
ing water to cover. Cook young carrots 30 minutes ; old carrots. 
45 minutes or longer. Drain, season slightly with salt, put into 
a hot dish, and cover with white or stock sauce. 

Carrots No. 2 

Wash and scrape off the skin ; cut in cubes or in "straws,'' 
and cook until tender in sufficient salted, boiling water to cover. 



94 A COURSE IN HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

Drain, and reserve the water. Put carrots back into the sauce- 
pan, and for every pint add i to 2 tb. of butter, i t. sugar. 
^ t. salt, and ^ c. of the vegetable stock. Cook over a hot fire 
until carrots have absorbed the liquid and seasoning. Serve hot. 

Molded Carrots 

Chop cooked carrots fine. Put into a saucepan and reheat. 
Season with salt, pepper, and butter, and stir occasionally, to 
prevent burning. Fill hot, buttered cups or one large mold 
with carrot and press lightly. Turn out on a hot dish. Garnisli 
with parsley. 

A second method is to fill unheated molds with cold chopped 
carrot and heat in a covered strainer placed over boiling water. 
Other vegetables may be reheated in the same way. 

Parsnips 

Wash and scrub parsnips. Cook 30 to 35 minutes, or until 
a fork will penetrate them easily. Drain ofif water, remove 
skin. Serve parsnips whole or mash. Season with salt, pepper, 
and butter, or serve with white sauce. 

An equal quantity of potato may be combined with the 
parsnips before mashing. 

Parsnips No. 2 

Wash and scrape the skin and cut parsnips into half -inch 
cubes. Cook in salted, boiling water till tender ; drain and serve 
with white sauce. To reheat cold parsnips, slice lengthwise and 
brown in hot fat ; or mash or chop, and reheat. 

Turnips 

Wash and scrub turnips ; pare oft" the thick skin. Cut turnips 
in quarters, in thick slices, or in cubes ; cook uncovered in plenty 



VEGETABLES 95 

of freshly boiling, salted water until soft. Flat white turnips 
will cook in 30 minutes ; yellow turnips in 45 to 60 minutes. 
Drain as soon as tender. Serve plain ; or mash, and season with 
salt, pepper, and butter ; or serve creamed in white sauce. 

Hashed Turnips No. i 

Chop the drained turnips into rather large pieces. Return 
to the saucepan, and for i^ pt. of turnips add i t. of salt, ^ t. 
of pepper, i to 2 tb. of butter, and J c. of water. Cook over a 
hot fire until the turnips have absorbed the seasonings. Serve 
immediately. ^ 

Turnips No. 2 

Add to the chopped turnips salt and pepper and i tb. of 
butter creamed with i tb. of flour. Put into a saucepan and 
cook over a hot fire 5 minutes, stirring to prevent burning ; 
then add i c. of milk, or of water in which meat has been cooked. 
Stir well and cook 10 minutes. Serve hot. 

Onions 

Onions are the most useful of vegetables for flavoring 
soups, stews, etc. 

White onions are less strongly flavored than the red or 
yellow varieties. To lessen the strong flavor, put onions into 
boiling water with J t. of cooking soda for each quart. Let 
them stand for half an hour ; then drain, and put them into a 
saucepan with plenty of salted, boiling water. If onions are 
very strong, the water may be changed once or twice during 
the cooking. 

Note. — To remove odor, wash at once in cold water, without soap, 
all knives, etc., used with onions. 



96 A COURSE IN HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

Boiled Onions 

Choose onions of about the same size. Cut off tops and root- 
ends and peel under cold water, to avoid irritating the eyes. 
Drain and put into a saucepan with plenty of salted, boiling 
water. Boil rapidly, uncovered, until onions are tender. Cook 
small onions 30 minutes ; larger ones, 45 to 60 minutes or longer. 
Drain, and reserve the water as a basis for soups or stews. 
Serve onions with salt, pepper, and butter, or reheat in milk 
or white sauce. 

Onions No. 2 

Drain peeled onions from the cold water and cook uncovered 
in plenty of salted, boiling water. Boil rapidly 10 minutes, 
drain, and cover the onions with hot milk, using i pt. of milk 
for I qt. of onions. Cook gently 20 minutes. Mix together 
2 tb. of butter with i tb. of flour and i t. of salt and | t. white 
pepper. Take | c. of the milk in which onions are cooking and 
blend it with the butter and flour mixture. When this mixture 
is smooth, add it to the onions and milk. Cook 10 minutes 
longer and serve hot. 

Boiled Cabbage 

Choose a head heavy for its size. Take off the coarse outer 
leaves, cut the head into quarters, and reject the core; soak 
half an hour in cold, salted water, to draw out any insects. If 
large, cut each quarter into two or more parts ; rinse cabbage 
in clear water and drain in a colander. 

Fill a large kettle two-thirds full with cold water and place 
over the heat. Add i tb. of salt and J t. cooking soda for a 
cabbage of medium size. When the water boils rapidly add the 
cabbage, a few pieces at a time, to check boiling as little as 
possible. 



VEGETABLES 97 

Cook uncovered in rapidly boiling water ; young cabbage 
25 minutes, but no longer. Older cabbage may need 45 minutes, 
but all cabbage should be cooked only till tender. It should 
retain its color, the green part remaining green and the white 
portion white. Turn cabbage into a colander to drain, press- 
ing out as much water as possible. Put cabbage back into the 
empty kettle, chop slightly with a knife if pieces are large, and 
reheat. Season with butter, salt, and pepper. Serve at once. 

Fat rendered from ham. bacon, pork, or sausages may be 
used instead of butter. 

Creamed Cabbage 

Put the cooked and drained cabbage into a kettle. Cream 
together i tb. butter or other fat with i tb. of flour, \ t. salt, 
and I t. pepper; mix with the cabbage, using a knife to cut it 
slightly ; then add ^ to ^ c. of milk, according to amount of 
cabbage. Cook about i minute after milk begins to bubble, 
stirring gently to prevent burning. Serve immediately. 

Tomatoes 

Put ripe tomatoes into a pan and pour boiling water over 
them. Let them stand about i minute, then pour water off 
and remove the skins. Or fill a wire frying basket with raw 
tomatoes, and lower the basket into' a deep stewpan containing 
sufficient boiling water to cover the tomatoes. Let the water 
boil I minute ; then lift the basket, cool the tomatoes, and re- 
move skins. Chill tomatoes before serving. 

Stewed Tomatoes 

Peel tomatoes and cut them into small pieces. Put them into 
an agate or enameled stew])an placed over fire. Boil gently 



98 A COURSK I.\ Hor^^lillOIJ) ARTS 

20 to 30 minutes. Five minutes before the cooking is completed, 
add seasoning. Allow for each quart of tomatoes i t. each of 
salt and sugar, | t. of pepper, and i tb. or more of butter. 
More seasoning may be added if desired. 



POTATOES 

The potato is a "tuber," or enlargement of the underground 
stem, which serves as a storehouse for material lield in reserve 
for the growth of new plants. 

The outer skin consists of a thin, grayish-brown, corky 
substance, and corresponds roughly to the bark of an over- 
ground stem. 

The framework of the potato, as in all other plant forms, 
is made up of cellulose, which forms the walls of a network of 
cells. These in turn form the body of the potato, the cells vary- 
ing in shape and size in the different portions, according to their 
position and use : those in the flesh serve mainly for storage, 
and in these cells are contained the minute grains, or granules. 
of starch. 

"If a cross-wise section of a raw potato is held up to 
the light three distinct parts besides the skiu may be seen. 
The outermost one is known as the cortical layer, and may be 
from o. 12 to 0.5 inch in thickness. This layer is slightly colored, 
the tint varying with the kind, and turns green if exposed to the 
light for some time, thus showing its relation to the tender, 
green layer beneath the bark of overground stems. It is denser 
than the other parts of the potato and contains many fibro- 
vascular bundles, especially on the inner edge, where a marked 
ring of them plainly separates this layer from the next. The 
interior or flesh of the tuber is made up of two layers known 
as the outer and inner meduUarv areas. The outer one forms 



VEGETA15LKS 99 

the main bulk of a well-developed potato and contains the 
greater part of the food ingredients. The inner medullary area, 
sometimes called the core, appears in a cross-section of the tuber 
to spread irregular arms up into the outer, so that its outline 
roughly suggests a star. It contains slightly more cellulose and 
less water and nutrients than the outer medullary portion." — 
Farmers' Bulletin 2g^. 

Experiment : Wash and pare a potato; grate it into a piece of 
cheeseclotli placed over a glass. Fold the corners of the cloth together, 
hold it over the glass, and sqiieez-e as dry as possible. The liquid in tlie 
glass is the water or "juice" in which is dissolved nearly all the soluble 
ingredients of the potato. 

Let the cloudy liquid stand until the white sediment, starch, settles 
to the bottom. Pour off the water gently, without disturjjing the starch ; 
add fresh water, if necessary, and stir thoroughly to wash the starch, 
and repeat until the starch is clean and the water colorless ; then pour 
off the water and dry the starch. More starch may he obtained by add- 
ing water to the pulp, stirring thoroughly, and straining, as before. 
Reserve and dry the pulp. Xotice the change in color. 

Note. — "If peeled potatoes are exposed to the air, the outer surface 
turns browai, just as does the flesh of many fruits. Such change is due 
to the action of enzymes or unorganized ferments naturally present in 
the plants. In the presence of oxygen of the air they work upon tannin- 
like bodies in the tuber or fruit in such a way that the latter change 
color. In the case of potatoes this browning may be prevented by putting 
the peeled tubers into salted water or even into cold plain water." — 
Fanners' Bulletin 293. 

Note. — Starch, especially if cooked, will turn a deep blue if moistened 
with a dilute solution of iodine. Iodine is therefore used by chemists 
as a test for the presence of starch. 

The average composition of potatoes is as follows : 

Water Protein Fat Carbohydrates Fiber Ash 
Per cent 78.3 .2.2 o.i 18.0 0.4 1.0 

Farmers' Bulletins 244 and ^95 contain the following useful 
information concerning potatoes : American markets demand 



icx) A coursp: in household .\rts 

potatoes 2 to 3 inches long and 5 to 10 ounces in weight, ''since 
such potatoes have more uniform cooking quaUties, a better 
appearance when served, a more nearly accurate weight when 
sold by measure, and sustain smaller losses when boiled. In the 
northern United States a light yellow or whitish-skinned tuljer 
is preferred, while in some parts of the Southern States ]Mnk- 
skinned varieties are sought." As far as could be determined, 
the pink-skinned potatoes ar£ in general as good in quality as 
those of light or yellowish color. Those having a more or less 
netted skin are usually preferred, as potatoes with smooth and 
clear skin are often excessively watery or immature. 

A good potato should feel hrm when pressed in the hand. 
If cut, it should separate crisply under the knife, and should be 
of even texture throughout. If the ''core" is large and soft, 
it will be soggy and full of holes in the center when cooked. 

Very large potatoes are not desirable, partly because it is 
hard to cook them evenly, and partly because they are apt to 
be variable in texture. 

Potatoes of irregular shape, or having numerous and deep 
eyes, are objectionable because they may carry much dirt, and 
the labor, time, and waste in preparing them are much greater 
than is the case with potatoes of even surface and fewer eyes. 

The "mealiness" of potatoes is dependent mainly upon the 
amount of starch present. Early and young potatoes have a 
better flavor, but are not so mealy and will not keep so well 
as older ones. 

Potatoes should be stored in a cool, dark, dry place. Those 
which have grown on the surface of the ground often turn 
green, and potatoes which have been exposed to the light develop 
an unpleasant flavor. It is best not to use such potatoes. Old 
potatoes which have sprouted should have the part around the 
sprout cut away, as these portions are believed to contain a 
poisonous substance. 



VEGETABLES lOI 

Note. — Solanin is a characteristic constituent of potatoes and other 
plants of the same family. It is acrid in taste and is poisonous. Only a 
trace, however — about o.oi per cent on an average — is found in the 
tubers of the varieties which are grow^n for the table, and this quantity 
is far too small to cause any unpleasant symptoms. It is maintained 
that the characteristic llavor of potatoes is due to this mere trace of 
solanin. Cases of actual poisoning from potatoes are not unknown, and 
perhaps, without exception, have been found to be due to an abnormal 
solanin content such as is found in sprouted tubers, in very old potatoes, 
and in potatoes which have turned green on exposure to light. — Fanners' 
Bulletin 2Q3. 

Under ordinary circumstances, liowever. potatoes are ini- 
qiiestionably wholesome food and form a staple article of diet 
in almost every household. This is doubtless owing to their 
mild flavor and their low price, and also because they are 
easy to cook and can be prepared in a great variety of ways. 
Ordinarily, potatoes are eaten with other foods rich in pro- 
tein, such as meat, fish, eggs, etc., and thus stipply bulk as 
well as carbohydrate, chiefly in the form of starch. Their 
mineral matter is also abundant and valuable, and they are in 
general thoroughly digested. ''One sometimes hears the state- 
ment made that potatoes are indigestible on accoimt of the large 
qtiantities of cellulose they contain," says Fanners' Bulletin 
No. 2pj. "In reality, there is as much or more in almost all the 
cereals and other vegetable foods, and such a criticism of 
the potato has no warrant in fact." 

The Cooking of Potatoes. By the ordinary methods of 
preparation and cooking, a large proportion of the nutritious 
substances of the potato, as in the case of other vegetables, 
may be lost. The temperature of the water in which ])otatoes 
are put on to cook influences the loss of nutriment. The use 
of cold water instead of boiling water at the beginning results 
in the loss of a small amount of mineral matter and over 
twice as great a loss of protein. ''If potatoes are washed thor- 



I02 A COURSE IX HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

oughly and then, without being pared or soaked, are put on to 
cook in boiHng water, there is practically no loss," writes 
Miss Helen Canon {Potatoes in the Dietary: Cornell Bulletin, 
Food Series i\o. ij). 

''From all points of view, baking and steaming are appar- 
ently the best methods of cooking potatoes, and the latter 
method has the advantage in econom)- of fuel used. A potato 
baked in a slow oven is much inferior to a potato properly 
boiled, however, because the heat has not been intense enough 
to cause the cell walls to be broken down, and the result is a 
soggy mass on which the digestive juices cannot act freely. 
Too rapid boiling is likely to pulverize the outside of the potato 
before the inside becomes tender, thus causing waste and an 
unattractive appearance when served. The method by which 
potatoes are cooked deserves consideration because it affects 
both nutrition and the pocketbook." 

When potatoes are pared, or cut into pieces before cooking, 
more surface is exposed, thus permitting the escape of soluble 
ingredients into the water. It has been estimated that a loss of 
20 per cent may occur in a pared potato ; and since the larger 
proportion of the valuable protein and mineral matter is in the 
outer layers, this is a serious loss. The total loss of substance 
is about twice as great when the paring is done before boiling 
as it is when done afterward, because the skin aids in prevent- 
ing the loss of mineral matter, protein, and starcli. 

While it is true that "only the skin comes off when a l)oiled 
potato is peeled, and that it peels off with much greater ease," 
resulting in the saving of both time and nutriment, nevcrtlieless 
it may be that time needed for removing the skin can be spared 
early in the day better than at the hour of serving a meal, when 
several other dishes may demand attention at the same moment. 

Note. — "Old potatoes are often soaked in cold water. Experiments 
have show n tliat a ])ared potato soaked for from three t(^ five hours loses 



VEGETABLES IO3 

about three times as much of its mineral matter and seven times as 
much of its protein as one that is pared and put on to cook immediately," 
says the Cornell Bulletin just quoted; and that "When potatoes are 
both pared and soaked, the loss in one bushel is estimated as equivalent 
to one pound of sirloin steak." Therefore, "If old potatoes must be 
soaked in order to improve their condition, let it be with the skins on." 



Boiled Potatoes 

Choose potatoes of about the same size ; cut in two, if large. 
Wash, pare thinly, cut out "eyes" and imperfect parts; drop 
potatoes at once into cold water to prevent discoloration. Cook 
in freshly boiling, salted water until a fork will penetrate them 
easily. Drain, uncover, and shake gently over the heat until 
the outside is dry and mealy ; sprinkle with salt and serve hot 
in an uncovered dish. If not used at once, cover with a napkin 
or towel, to absorb the steam. 

New^ potatoes have thin skins, which can be scraped off. 
In the spring, old potatoes are improved by soaking i hour in 
cold water. 

Steamed Potatoes 

Put washed and pared potatoes into a steamer placed over 
a kettle of rapidly boiling water. Cover and keep water boiling 
until potatoes are soft — 30 to 40 minutes. 

Mashed Potatoes 

6 medium-sized potatoes i ssp. pepper 

I t. salt 3 tb. butter 

J to I c. hot milk 

Boil the potatoes and drain ; mash in the saucepan in which 
they were boiled. Season ; add the hot milk gradually ; beat 
until light and creamy, and pile on a hot dish. 



104 '"^ COURS1-: IX nULSEHOLD ARTS 

Riced Potatoes 

Press hot potatoes through a potato ricer, or coarse strainer, 
into a hot vegetable dish. Serve at once, or brown hghtly in a 
hot oven. 

Baked Potatoes 

Wash and scrub potatoes of uniform size. Bake on the 
grate of a hot oven from 30 to 45 minutes, or until soft. Turn 
them every 15 minutes, to keep them from burning. Test by 
pressing them, with the hand wrapped in a towel. When soft, 
break open the skins, to let steam escape, and serve potatoes at 
once. If any are left over, remove skins and save potatoes for 
warming over. 

Potatoes greased with lard or other fat before baking will 
cook in a shorter time. 

Sweet Potatoes 

Wash sweet potatoes, but do not pare, as without the skins 
they would lose some of the sugar to which they owe their 
sweetness. Cook in boiling water till soft; or steam over boil- 
ing water, as directed for white potatoes. 

Baked Sweet Potatoes 

Wash and bake as directed for white potatoes. Small ones 
will bake in 30 to 35 minutes ; large ones will require an hour 
or more. If liked very moist and sweet, bake rather slowly 
for I hour, or until skin will separate from potatoes. 

Warmed-Over Potatoes 

Warmed-over potatoes, to be palatable, should be well 
seasoned ; they should be heated as hot as {possible witliout 
l)urnin^. and they should 1)e served very hot. 



VEGETABLES l^>b 

The potatoes may be sliced thin, cut in eighths, cubes, or 
chopped, and used by themselves, or added to other vegetables, 
or to meat or fish, as hash. 

Milk or fat in some form is generally used ; a little onion 
or parsley will give additional flavor. Cheese is sometimes 
added. A few slices of crisp bacon or ham will give variety 
as well as additional nutriment. 

Potatoes may be reheated by browning in hot fat, in milk, 
or in thin white sauce as creamed potatoes, or in gravy, or as 
scalloped potatoes. 

Mashed potatoes may be reheated with a little milk ; or made 
into small cakes and browned in hot fat or in the oven ; or 
used in hash, croquettes, soup, or as crust for meat pies, etc. 

Lyonnaise Potatoes 

2 c. potato cubes i^ tb. melted fat 

I t. salt I tb. chopped onion 

I t. pepper i tb. parsley, chopped fine 

Cut potatoes into half-inch cubes. Sprinkle with the salt 
and pepper. Heat the fat, add the onion, and cook till deep 
yellow. Add the potatoes and stir lightly until they have 
absorbed the fat. Add the chopped parsley and turn into a hot 
dish. Serve very hot. A teaspoonful of vinegar is sometimes 
added. 

Creamed Potatoes No. i 

Cut cold boiled potatoes into thin slices. Measure and 
allow for each cupful J c. of milk, ^ tb. butter, J t. salt, and a 
few grains of pepper. 

Heat the milk in a shallow pan ; add the sliced potatoes and 
stir slowly until they have nearly absorbed the milk ; add season- 



I06 A COURSE IN HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

ing, stir until well mixed : cook 5 minutes longer and serve hot. 
One teaspoon ful of fine-chopped parsley may be added. 

Creamed Potatoes No. 2 

Cut cold potatoes into cubes and heat in milk or in thin 
white sauce: allow i| c. white sauce for 2 c. of potato cubes. 

Creamed Potatoes No. 3 

Cut cooked potatoes into cubes or dice : put into a saucepan, 
dredge with flour, and stir until cubes are well covered. Place 
saucepan over the fire, cover potatoes with milk, add salt and 
pepper and butter to taste. Stir all together until the milk 
bubbles and the mixture becomes smooth and creamy. Serve 
hot. 

Potatoes with Cheese 

Slice potatoes, season, put into a baking dish, and cover 
with milk. Sprinkle grated cheese over the top if liked. Cover 
and bake until the milk is nearly absorbed, then uncover and 
cook until cheese is melted. 

Potato Cakes 

Form cold mashed potatoes into balls and flatten them into 
cakes about half an inch thick. Arrange on a buttered baking 
pan, putting a small })iece of butter on the top of each. I)ake 
on the grate of a hot oven until slightly browned, or brown in 
hot fat in a frying pan. 



VEGETABLES IO7 

VEGETABLE SOUPS 

Fresh, canned, or dried vegetables may be used for soups. 
The foundation Hquid for such soups may lie water, inilk, 
cream, or vegetable stock, either separately or together. When 
the liquid used is cream, or milk thickened to the consistency 
of cream (thin white sauce), it is called a cream of vegetable 
soup, the distinctive name being that of the vegetable used. 
A very thick cream soup is called a puree. Meat stock, or the 
water in which meat has been cooked, is sometimes added to 
vegetable soups, or a few drops of meat extract may be used 
to give additional flavor. 

Tomatoes, celery, onions, carrots, squash, potatoes, beans, 
peas, either green or dried, and in fact nearly all vegetables, 
may be used for soups. They may be freshly cooked or "left- 
overs," but must be cooked until soft enough to be mashed or 
pressed through a strainer. 

The liquid is generally thickened with flour or other starchy 
material, to keep the vegetable pulp from settling. Dried bread 
or cracker crumbs, rice water, etc., are also used for this 
purpose. 

The proportion of liquid and the amount of thickening 
will vary according to the kind of vegetable, whether watery 
or starchy. Very watery vegetables, like onions, celery, etc., 
will need more, and potatoes, peas, or beans need less, thicken- 
ing to make soup of the right consistency. 

Butter or other fat is generally added, either blended witli 
the flour or added after the soup is cooked. 

A general rule is to allow from one-fourth to one level table- 
spoonful of flour to each cup of liquid (including milk or water 
and the vegetable pulp) and one level tablespoon ful or more 
of butter or other fat. 



I08 A COURSE IX HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

Mixed Vegetable Soup 

I onion, chopped 4 tb. beef or ham fat 

I c. potato, cut in dice i tb. flour 

I c. carrot, diced 4 c. boihng water 

J c. celery, sliced thin Salt and pepper to taste 

Put the fat in the stewpan and heat until smoking- hot : 
add all the vegetables except the potatoes, and stir gently until 
vegetables are delicately browned. Add the flour and stir until 
well mixed, then add the water and the seasoning and cook 
slowly I hour. Parboil the potatoes 5 minutes and add to the 
soup 20 minutes before serving. Hot milk, also more flour, 
may be added if desired. 



Rice and Tomato Soup 

J can tomatoes or i stalk celery, sliced 

6 tomatoes, peeled and * i t. sugar 
sliced I t. salt 

1 small onion, sliced -J t. pepper 

2 tb. butter i tb. butter 
2 c. boiling water i tb. flour 

J c. cooked rice 

Heat .2 tb. butter in a stewpan, add the sliced onion, and 
cook until yellow\ Add tomatoes, stir until very hot ; add the 
boiling water and the celery. Cook slowly 40 minutes, or until 
tomatoes are very soft. Press through strainer and reheat to 
boiling. Add the rice, sugar, salt, and pepper, and more season- 
ing if required. Cream together i tb. butter and i tb. flour, 
add to soup, stirring until butter is melted. Boil 1 minute. 
Serve hot. 



VEGETABLES IO9 

Water from boiled rice may be used instead of clear water. 
The flavor may be varied by the use of a sinall piece of bay leaf, 
or one or two whole cloves, or chopped parsley. Celery leaves 
may be used instead of the stalk. 

Potato Soup No. I 

l.i c. mashed potatoes 2 tb. flour 

2 c. milk ^ t. salt 

1 c. water ^ t. celery salt 

■J small onion Spk. white pepper 

2 tb. butter i t. fine-chopped parsley 

Freshly boiled or cold mashed potatoes may be used. Add 
onion to milk and scald ; add the mashed potatoes to the milk. 
Melt the butter, add the flour, and a little of the potato mix- 
ture. Boil I minute, combine with remaining potato mixture, 
and add seasoning. Strain, reheat, and add parsley. Serve 
with croiitons or crisp crackers. 

Potato Soup No. 2 

2 c. mashed potatoes i c. milk 

I onion i tb. butter 

I stalk of celery i tb. flour 

4 c. boiling water Salt and pepper to taste 

Cook the mashed potatoes, onion, and celery in the water 
half an hour, press through a strainer, and return to fire. Melt 
the butter, add the flour, then the milk to make a white sauce. 
Add to the soup, with the seasoning ; reheat and serve. 



CHAPTER X 
Starches and Sugar 

Starch occurs in more or less abundance in various parts 
of all plants, in minute particles known as '^g^ranules," but is 
stored chiefly in seeds, roots, and tubers. 

Though starchy substances form a large part of the food 
of man, in most foods the starch is combined with -other sub- 
stances. Cornstarch is an example of a nearly pure starch. 

The principal starchy foods are the cereals, including wheat, 
corn, oats, rye, barley, and rice. From these grains are pro- 
duced the different kinds of flour and meal and the numerous 
varieties of ''breakfast foods," whether raw or "ready to eat.'' 

Buckzvheat, although botanically widely separated from 
the cereals, is classed with them because its seeds are similar 
in composition and uses. The name was originally "beech- 
wheat," and was so called from the resemblance of its seeds 
in shape and color to the triangular seeds of the beech tree. 

Macaroni, spaghetti, vermicelli, etc., are made of flour from 
a special variety of wheat, known as "durum wheat." 

Tapioca is prepared by heating in a moist state the starch 
from the root of the cassava plant, which grows in some South 
American countries. 

Sago is obtained from the interior of the trunks of East 
Indian palm trees. 

Arrowroot, the purest form of starch, is obtained from 
])lants native to the West Indies and tropical America. It is 
the most expensive starch, but is useful in thickening sauces 
and soups when great clearness is desired. 

1 lO 



STARCHES AND SL'UAk III 

Among vegetables, potatoes take the lead, being nearly 
one-fifth starch. Dried peas, beans, and lentils contain a large 
proportion of starch, but being also rich in protein, they will 
not be considered among the exclusively starchy foods. 

Experiments with Starch 

1. Mix I t. starch with i t. cold water, add \ c. cold water : 
stir well ; let stand lo minutes or longer. 

2. {a) Mix I t. starch with i t. cold water and stir con- 
stantly while adding \ c. boiling water. 

{h) Mix 2 t. starch with i t. cold water and stir con- 
stantly while adding J c. boiling water. Put into a wet cup 
to cool. 

3. Add I t. starch to J c. boiling water and stir. 

4. ^lix I t. starch with 2 t. granulated sugar ; stir con- 
stantly while adding \ c. boiling water. 

5. ]\Iix I t. starch w^ith J t. butter or other fat : add gradu- 
ally \ c. boiling water and stir constantly. 

6. {a) Heat i t. of^dry starch carefully, stirring constantly 
until the starch is light brown ; mix with \ c. cold water. Note 
consistency ; compare with that of mixture made with un- 
browned starch. 

{h) Heat i t. of dry starch until it becomes charred 
and blackened. 

Substitute flour for starch and repeat experiments, using 
same proportions ; compare as to thickness, color, clearness, etc. 

Note. — Flour contains starch, and is therefore often used for thick- 
ening soups, gravies, and sauces. As flour is not pure starch, nearly 
twice as much tiour as cornstarch must be used for thickening. (See 
test for starch, p. 99.) 



112 A COURSE IN HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

Inference from Experiments with Starch 

T. Cold water separates the granules, but does not dissolve 
the starch. 

2. (a) Starch absorbs boiling water, swells, softens, and 
partially dissolves, and thus thickens the water. If starch has 
been wet with cold water before boiling water is added, a 
smooth paste is formed. 

(b) If the proportion of starch to liquid is increased 
sufficiently, the cooked starch when cold will form a "jelly" 
stiff enough to retain the shape of the dish in which it was 
cooled. Application — making of cornstarch mold, etc. 

3. Dry starch mixed with boiling water forms lumps, soft 
and sticky outside and raw within. 

4. Starch mixed with sugar before adding boiling water 
forms a smooth mixture. Application — making sweet sauces, 
etc. 

5. Starch mixed with fat before adding boiling water also 
forms a smooth mixture. Application — thickening for vege- 
table and meat sauces, soups, etc. 

6. (a) Starch heated without water until light brown 
becomes soluble in water ; it also loses part of its thickening- 
power, and therefore more of the browned starch or flour must 
be used for thickening a given quantity of liquid. Application 
— to brown sauce and gravies. 

Note. — Dry starch heated to about 340 to 400° F. is changed into 
a pale yellowish-brown substance called dextrin. It has a slightly sweet 
taste and is soluble in water. A similar change takes place in bread 
when toasted and in the crust of bread when baked. 

(b) Starch heated without water becomes "sticky,'" 
yellow, brown, and then black ; it does not swell or soften. 



STARCHES AM) SL'ClAR II3 

Therefore, in order to cook starch properly, moisture, as well 
as heat, is necessary. 

Raic starch is very difficult to digest, but as soon as the 
starch granules become swollen and softened they are readily 
attacked by the digestive juices; and therefore the chief object 
ill cooking starch is to chanj^e it from a fonn exceedingly diffi- 
cult to digest to one easy to digest — a change which is effected 
]\\' means of sufficient heat, moisture, and time. 

Although starch will sicell and soften before boiling point 
is reached, a better flavor will be developed if it is boiled for 
at least i minute and then cooked for a longer period at a 
lower temperature, the time varying from lo or 20 minutes 
to several hours, according to the kind of starchy food to be 
cooked. 

Since there is less danger of burning if starch is cooked 
over boilino;' water instead of directlv over the fire, a double 
boiler is useful for this purpose. 

If not to be used immediately, starchy foods should be 
covered closely after cooking, to prevent a tough ''skin" or 
film from forming. This "skin" is even more difficult to digest 
than raw starch. 

Cornstarch Mold 

3 to 4 tl). cornstarch i tl). cocoa 

2 tb. sugar ^ t. salt 

2 c. milk 

Scald I j c. milk in a double boiler ; reserve ^ c. cold milk for 
wetting cornstarch. Mix dry ingredients, add cold milk, and 
stir until smooth. Stir scalded milk slowly into wet cornstarch, 
etc. Cook in top of double l)oiler directly over the lieat, stir- 
i-ing constantly until it boils i minute ; then cover, and cook 
20 minutes or longer over 1)oiling water. Pour into a cold, wet 



114 A COUKSK IN HOL'SEIIOLD ARTS 

mold. Serve with milk or cream and sugar, or omit sugar 
and serve with sweet sauce. Thirty drops of vanilla or lemon 
extract may be used instead of the cocoa. 

If extracts are used for flavoring, add when the cornstarch 
is taken from the fire: if boiled they will evaporate, and the 
flavor will be lost. 

Shredded cocoanut or macaroon crumbs may be added to 
the cornstarch just before pouring into the mold. 

Apple Tapioca, or Sago Pudding 

f c. tapioca or sago ^ t. salt 

Cold water to cover 6 or 7 sour apples 

3 c. boiling water ' ^ c. sugar 

J t. cinnamon or ^ t. nutmeg 

Cover tapioca or sago with cold water and soak i hour. 
Drain, and add boiling water and salt. Cook in a double boiler 
until tapioca or sago is clear. Core and pare the apples ; put 
them into a buttered baking dish ; fill cavities of apples with 
mixture of sugar and spice. Pour the tapioca over them and 
bake until apples are soft. Serve with cream or milk and sugar. 

Pineapple, peaches, or rhubarb may be used instead of 
apples. The fruit may be sliced and cooked in double boiler 
with the tapioca or sago for 5 minutes before putting into 
baking dish, or uncooked strawberries may be used. Pearl, 
flake, or minute tapioca may be used ; minute tapioca needs no 
soaking. 

WHITE SAUCE, ETC. 

White sauce is the basis of many sauces, gravies, and of 
some soups. The liquid may be milk, cream, milk and water, 
or vegetable or other stock. Tlie thickening may be floiu' or 
cornstarch, combined with butter. Tlie usual seasonings arc 
salt and pc]')iier. 



STARCHES AND SUGAR II5 

The proportion of flour to each cup of Hquid varies from 
1 tb. to 2 or more tb., and the proportion of butter from i t. 
to 2 or more tb. to a cup, according to the use to be made of it. 
One-fourth teaspoonful of salt is the usual quantity for each 
cupful of sauce, a little more being necessary if the amount of 
butter used is small. Pepper is added according to taste. 
By substituting sugar and flavoring for salt and pepper, a simple 
pudding sauce may be made. 

Methods of Combining Materials for White Sauce 

First Method: Heat a portion of the milk: reserve enough 
cold milk to make with the flour a mixture thin enough to pour 
easily. Use at first equal proportions of flour and liquid, stir 
till smooth, and add more liquid if necessary. Pour flour mix- 
ture slowly into scalded milk, stirring constantly until thickened. 
Boil I minute, stirring constantly, and cook lo minutes or longer 
in double boiler. Add butter, salt, and pepper ; stir well and 
serve. If not to be used immediately, cover closely to prevent 
a film from forming. Omit pepper if sauce is used for toast. 

Second Method: Melt the butter or other fat and add all 
the flour ; place over heat and stir constantly until mixture 
becomes noticeably thinner. Remove from heat, add the hot 
milk, one-third at a time, each time stirring until perfectly 
smooth before adding more liquid. Return to heat and cook 
until mixture boils. Add seasoning and serve. 

Note. — The intense heat of the hot fat cooks the flour very thor- 
oughly before the liquid is added ; therefore, in making sauce by this 
method, longer cooking is unnecessary. 

Third Method: Warm the butter until soft, and mix the 
flour with it thoroughly in the top part of double boiler : add 
all tlie lic|uid and heat, stirring constantly, until mixture boils. 



Il6 A COURSE IN HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

Or heat the milk and add the creamed butter and Hour ; stir 
constantly until mixture boils ; then cook over boiling water 
lo to 15 minutes or longer. 

In the second and third methods the seasoning may be mixed 
with the butter and flour if preferred, instead of adding it at 
the last. The amount of butter used in these two latter methods 
must be at least one-half as much as the flour, if sauce is to be 
smooth. 

The first method takes longer, but is preferable when the 
sauce is to be used for persons with weak digestion, since the 
cooking of butter may render it less digestible and will destroy 
the delicate flavor. In this connection, however, Farmers' 
Bulletin A^o. jp/ says : ''It is difficult to see how heating the fat 
before adding the flour can be unwholesome, unless the cook 
is unskillful enough to heat the fat so high that it begins to 
scorch. Overheated fat . . . contains an acrid, irritating sub- 
stance called 'acrolein,' which may be readily considered to be 
unwholesome." 

The fundamental principle in using flour or cornstarch for 
thickening sauces is to separate the starch granules before cook- 
ing so that all the granules will absorb liquid and swell, thus 
making a smooth mixture. 

The separation of starch granules, we have seen, may be 
accomplished in three ways : by mixing with ( i ) cold liquid ; 
(2)- with sugar; (3) with fat. 

General Rules for Thickening i c. of Liquid with Flour 

For soups, use -] to i tb. of flour to each cup of liquid. 
For thin white sauce, use i tb. of flour to each cu]:) of liquid. 
For medium white sauce, use 2 tb. of flour to each cup of 
liquid. 

For thick white sauce, use 3 tb. of flour to each cup of liquid. 



STARCHES AND SUGAR II7 

For a very thick white sauce, use 4 or 5 ti). of flour to each 
cup of Hquid. 

A httle more than twice as much of browned as of raw tiour 
will be required for gravies, etc., owing to the loss of thicken- 
ing power. (See experiments with starch.) 

Toast 

Cut stale bread into slices one-third of an inch thick, and 
remove crusts if desired. Place slices of bread in a wire toaster 
and fasten. Dry them slowly, first on one side and then on the 
other, by holding toaster several inches above a clear fire ; then, 
liolding toaster nearer, move it slowly from side to side to avoid 
scorching, till toast is golden brown on both sides. Serve dry, 
or butter and lay buttered sides together and serve immediately. 
If toast is not served at once, pile slices loosely on a plate and 
put into the oven to keep hot and dry, for if piled closely, toast 
steams and loses its crispness. If toasted under the oven burners 
of a gas stove, turn the slices often until evenly browned. 
Bread may be browned in the oven if preferred. 

When toast is to be used as a garnish, or for serving with 
soup, the bread should be cut into shape before toasting. For 
toast ** points," cut squares of bread diagonally into two or four 
triangles; for serving with soups, cut the bread into "fingers," 
or strips one-third inch wide and three or four inches long, or 
make croiitons. 

Croutons 

Cut bread a day or more old into ^ inch cubes. Put in a pan 
and bake in a moderate oven until light brown. The bread may 
be buttered before cutting, or butter may be put into the pan 
with croutons, which should be stirred frequently to become 
evenly browned. Sprinkle a very little salt over the croutons 
while hot. 



Il8 A COURSK IN HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

Crisped Crackers 

Put crackers into a shallow pan and bake in a moderate oven 
until deep yellow. The crackers may be buttered very slightly 
before baking. Crisped crackers are often served with cream 
soups. 

XoTE. — In summarizing the results of investigations concerning the 
comparative digestibility of bread and toast at the California and Minne- 
sota Experiment Stations, Fanners' Bulletin 193 (Experiment Station 
Work, XXV) states that "In thoroughly toasted hread the change of 
starch into soluble compounds and the sterilization are factors wl.ich 
may be sufficient to account for the increased (Hgestibility noted in the 
experiments and also for the commonly observed fact that such toast 
is more readily digested by invalids than bread, but according to Pro- 
fessor Hilgard [California Experiment Station Report, 1902-03] the case 
is otherwise with the toast made by the ordinary household method. 
Such toast, he states in effect, is only browned delicately on both sides, 
the toasting changing the bread only to a very slight depth, so that the 
toasted layer on the two sides together will hardly exceed a millimeter 
(about 0.04 inch) in thickness. 

"When toasting is carried to the delicate yellow stage the increase 
in soluble matter will be insignificant, and the soft interior of tlie slice 
will be no more sterilized than it was in the baking of the bread. Thus 
neither increased solubility of the carbohydrates nor sterilization can 
explain the fact that such toast is nevertheless apparent!}' easier of 
digestion by invalids than the bread from which it was made. 

"In view of these results, Professor Hilgard believes that it is im- 
probable that the beneficial effect of toasting bread is in the main due 
either to an increase of soluble ingredients or to sterilization. The ex- 
periments offer little more than a probable indication of the really 
effective conditions, but they point to the conclusion that not solubility, 
but the flavor produced by the toasting, is the true cause of the readier 
digestion of ordinary toast as compared with bread, probably owing to 
the fact that it stimulates the flow of digestive juices." 

Hot Water Toast 

Use ^ t. salt to each cup of boiling water. Dip each slice 
of toast quickly into the boiling, salted water, put on a hot dish 



STARCHES AND SUGAR I I9 

and spread with butter ; pile slices one upon another and serve 
immediately. ''Left-over" toast may be reheated in this way. 
Common crackers, toasted or not, may be substituted for bread. 

Hot Milk Toast 

To each cup of hot milk add ^ t. salt, and proceed as directed 
for hot water toast. After dipping the toast, pour the remain- 
ing milk over the slices. 

If desired, i t. of butter may be melted in the milk, or the 
toast may be buttered before wetting it. 

Cream Toast 

Substitute cream for milk and omit butter, or use thin 
white sauce. 

White or Cream Sauce for Toast 

1 c. milk I t. butter 

2 tb. flour or i tb. cornstarch ^ t. salt 

Make according to First Method, page 115. This quantity 
of sauce is sufficient for from four to six slices of toast. Pour 
sauce between and over slices. Toasted bread may or may not 
be dipped in salted water before adding sauce. 

Toast Water 

Cut or break slices of stale bread into small pieces of nearly 
e(|ual size, put them into a pan, and dry in the oven until crisp 
and brown. The crusts cut from bread before toasting may 
also be used. Pour boiling water over an equal measure of 
the toast. Cover and let stand t hour. Strain through cheese- 
cloth or a fine strainer, pressing out as much of the water as 



120 A COUKSK IX H( )ISEH()I.I) ARTS 

possible. Serve the toast water slightly salted, either hot or 
cold. 

Note. — Toast water can often be taken when the stomach will retain 
nothing else, and as the intense heat necessary for browning the bread 
all through changes the starch present into compounds soluble in water 
(dextrin, etc.), a certain amount of nutriment may thus be given, wliich 
will vary according to its concentration. 



CEREAL FOODS 

The results of investigations carried on in a number of experiment 
stations and extending over several years, concerning the digestibility, 
nutritive value, and comparative cost of cereal breakfast foods, are 
summarized in Fanners' Bulletin 24c), of which the following is largely 
a compilation. 

The cereals, or edible grains, extensively cultivated in all 
parts of the world except the Arctic regions, belong to the 
family of grasses. They contain in unusually good proportions 
the necessary food ingredients, are easily prepared, and are 
palatable and wholesome. Because of their dryness they are 
compact and are easily kept from spoiling. 

Composition: The cereals are about two-thirds carbohy- 
drates, chiefly in the form of starch, one-tenth protein, one-tenth 
water : they contain a little fat and mineral nnitter, and more or 
less cellulose, or ** crude fiber." 

The majority of cereal breakfast foods are made from 
wheat, oats, corn, and rice, although some are prepared from 
barley. The grains may be w^hole, coarsely gr(^imd into grits, 
or more or less finely ground, as flour and meal, but all need 
thorough cooking. The grains may be simply husked and more 
or less crushed ; or partly cooked, as in the case of rolled oats 
and wheat; or cooked and ''ready-to-eat" ; while others are 
still further treated, as the malted and predigested foods. 



STARCHES AND SUGAR 121 

In view of the high food vakie of cereal products and their 
palatabiHty and wholesomeness, the extravagant claims often 
made by manufacturers as to the value of special breakfast 
cereals are unnecessary, and have little, if any, basis in fact. 

''The so-called partially digested or ready-to-eat cereals 
seem to supply no more digestible material than the plain grains 
when well cooked," says Bulletin No. 24Q. Certainly "the 
claims made for some brands that the carbohydrates are com- 
pletely or largely predigested are quite unwarranted. Further- 
more, it must be remembered that if the cereal foods are 
thoroughly cooked at home before serving, the proportion of 
soluble . . . carbohydrates formed will be fairly high, certainly 
as high or higher than in the predigested foods designed to be 
eaten raw." 

The claims made for quick cooking, also, are generally not 
true, and almost all such preparations should be cooked for at 
least half an hour, and usually longer, to insure complete digest- 
ibility of the starch, while the flavor is greatly improved by 
cooking one or more hours. 

The converting of "the nutrients into more digestible forms 
is especially important in vegetable foods, which, like the 
cereals, contain a large proportion of x:rude fiber. As has been 
stated, the nutrients of the grain are found inside the starch- 
bearing and other cells, and the walls of these cells are made 
of crude fiber, on which the digestive juices have little effect. 
Unless the cell walls are broken down, the nutrients cannot 
come under the influence of the digestive juices until the diges- 
tive organs have expended material and energy in trying to 
get at them. Crushing the grain in mills and making it finer 
by thorough mastication breaks many cell walls, and the action 
of the saliva and other digestive juices also disintegrates 
them more or less, but the heat of cooking accomplishes the 



122 A COURSK IX IIOI'SEIIOLD ARTS 

object much more thoroughly. The invisible moisture in the 
cells expands under the action of heat, and the cell walls burst; 
and the water added in cooking also plays an important part 
in softening and rupturing them. Then, too, the cellulose itself 
may be changed by heat to more soluble forms. Heat also 
makes the starch in the cells at least partially soluble, especially 
when water is present. The solubility of the protein is probably 
as a rule somewhat lessened by cooking, especially at higher 
temperatures. Long, slow cooking is therefore better, as it 
breaks down the crude fiber and changes the starch to soluble 
forms without materially decreasing the solubility of the 
protein." 

There is more variation in price than in composition, and 
the goods sold in bulk are as nutritious as the same article sold 
in packages at a higher price. The retail prices of breakfast 
cereals vary from three cents a pound for some of the plain 
meals sold in bulk to fifteen cents or more for some of the 
'*ready-to-eat" brands, while the proportion of nutrients sup- 
plied, pound for pound, does not differ greatly. The higher 
price is paid mainly for convenience, novelty, and, perhaps, for 
special flavor. 

The cost of labor and fuel in preparing should be taken into 
account in determining the real economy of a food. If a fire 
is kept in the range all day for other purposes, no extra fuel 
and very little labor is needed to cook the cheap raw cereals. 
If, however, a gas stove is used, and time and labor are limited, 
it may be better economy to use the partially cooked or ready- 
to-eat brands. The goods in packages, too, take less room for 
storage, and under some conditions may be fresher and cleaner. 

A "fireless cooker" is ideal for cooking cereals. The cereal 
should be prepared as usual, then boiled 5 to lO minutes over 
the heat, covered closely, and placed in the cooker for 3 or 4 
Ik^iu^s. 



STARCHES AND SUGAR I23 

''All things considered, the cereal breakfast foods as a class 
are nutritious, convenient, and reasonably economical foods," 
and when judiciously combined with other foods are worthy 
of an important place in the diet. They are believed to be 
particularly desirable foods for children. 

Method of Cooking Cereals and Grnels: Put the required 
quantity of boiling water and salt in the upper part of double 
boiler ; place directly upon stove, and when the water boils 
rapidly, stir the cereal slowly into it. If cereal is coarse, stir 
it in dry; if fine, wet it with an equal quantity of cold water 
before adding it to the boiling water. Whole grains may be 
soaked in cold water before cooking. 

Cook directly over the heat 5 to lo minutes, stirring con- 
stantly. Then place upper part of double boiler over the lower 
part, which should be one-third full of boiling water ; keep the 
water boiling. Do not stir the cereal after it is placed over the 
boiling water, or the granules will break up and cause the mix- 
ture to be "pasty." 

The time for cooking depends upon the cereal used, and 
will vary with the amount and character of the fiber, the size 
of the pieces, and the degree of cooking to which the cereals 
have been subjected in the course of manufacture. 

Granulated wheat preparations, as wheat germ, wheatlet, 
etc., need nearly four times their bulk of water. To prevent 
lumping, sprinkle slowly into boiling water, stirring constantly. 
Boil 5 to 10 minutes over stove or gas, and cook over boiling 
water 30 minutes to i hour or longer. 

Shredded wheat biscuits may be used as a breakfast cereal 
by dipping quickly into salted water and heating in the oven 
between buttered plates. Serve with milk or cream and sugar, 
or with butter only. 

All cereals may be used for j^orridge ; with the addition of 



124 A C0URS1-: IN HOL'SEHOLD ARTS 

more water they may be made into gruel. Cold cereals may be 
sliced, dipped into flour, and browned in a small quantity 
of smoking hot fat, or may be added to muffin mixtures, or to 
stews, etc. They may also be molded and served with cream 
and sugar, with or without the addition of sliced bananas or 
other fruits. 

Rolled Oats or Rolled Wheat 

I c. rolled oats or wheat 2 c. boiling water 

I t. salt 

Pick over the oats or wheat and remove foreign substances ; 
follow directions for cooking cereals. Boil 5 minutes, stirring 
constantly ; then cook over boiling water 20 to 30 minutes, 
or longer. Serve with cream or milk and sugar. Steamed or 
baked apples and rolled oats make an agreeable combination. 
Dates, washed, stoned, and quartered, make a palatable addi- 
tion to either oat or wheat cereals ; or seeded raisins may be 
added before serving. 

The rolled oats, being crushed and partially cooked, need 
less cooking than coarse oatmeal. 



Coarse Oatmeal 

I c. oatmeal 5 c. boiling water 

i t. sah 

Pick over the meal, follow directions for rolled oats, then 
cook from 8 to 12 hours. It may be cooked the day before it is 
needed and reheated, adding more water if necessary. 



STARCHES AND SUGAR 1 25 

Oatmeal Gruel No. i 

I c. rolled oats | t. salt 

I c. boiling water i c. milk 

Prepare as for cereal. Cook in a saucepan 30 minutes, stir- 
ring all the time, or in a double boiler i to 2 hours. Strain the 
gruel, add the milk, and heat just to the boiling point. Serve 
hot, with I t. sugar and a sprinkling of nutmeg, if desired. 

Cold oatmeal porridge may be used to make gruel by add- 
ing more water and reheating. It may be served strained or 
unstrained. 

Oatmeal Gruel No. 2 

i c. coarse oatmeal ^ t. salt 

i^ to 2 c. cold water Milk 

Roll or pound the meal until floury, add one-third of the 
water ; stir well and let settle a few seconds. Pour the milkv- 
looking water into a saucepan, add a second portion of cold 
water to the oatmeal, stir, and let settle ; then pour off the milk}' 
water as before. Add the remaining water, stir, and pour off 
as before, being careful each time not to allow any of the coarse 
portion to go into saucepan. Boil 10 minutes, stirring to pre- 
vent burning, then cook i hour in a double boiler. Add milk 
to make of desired consistency, and proceed as in Gruel No. i. 

CORN MEAL 

Corn meal was formerly made by grinding corn between 
millstones turned by water power, and it is still in some regions 
termed "water-ground corn meal." The entire kernel was 
ground at once, and the skin was afterwards partially removed 
1)y sifting, etc. In the newer process the corn is first kiln-dried. 



126 A COURSK IX HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

after which the outer skin is removed in one piece. The germ 
is also easily separated ; and after skin and germ are removed, 
the corn is ground, bolted, or sifted, and purified by air currents. 
By the removal of all the skin before grinding, the percentage 
of crude fiber is much reduced ; by the removal of the germ, 
the proportion of protein and fat is lessened. 

The new-process meal consequently has a slightly lower 
nutritive value, pound for pound, than the old process. Its 
keeping qualities are increased, however, because the heating 
and drying of the grain lessens or destroys the molds and decay- 
producing bacteria ; while the removal of the germ is also an 
advantage, because it contains corn oil, which is Hkely to become 
rancid. 

It is sometimes asserted that the new-process meal does not 
possess so good a flavor as the old-fashioned corn meal. In 
this connection Fanners' Bulletin 559 says: "Those who have 
studied the subject carefully believe that any inferiority in 
dishes made from the new meal as compared with the old is due, 
in part at least, to the fact that cooks have not adjusted their 
methods to the changed character of the material." 

The following suggestions also are made concerning the 
cooking of corn meal: "In general, 10 per cent more water is 
needed for the new-process meal than for the old process, and 
where the large amount of water used renders the meal liable 
to sink (in breads, for example), the mixture of meal and water 
should be thoroughly heated before being used. 

" In experiments made in this oflice it was found that, when 
convenience as well as the final result is taken into considera- 
tion, it is best for almost every purpose to put the meal and 
cold water together, and then heat them over 1)oiling water in 
a double boiler. Except when very finely ground meals are 
used, it is unnecessary to stir the mixture at any time, not even 



STARCHES AND SUGAR 12/ 

when the meal and water are put together. The conckision has 
heen reached, in fact, that in all cases — even those in which the 
hquid used is not water, but either sweet or sour milk — the best 
results are obtained by heating the meal and liquid together 
without stirring. This ap])lies to the making of corn-meal mush 
and also to more complicated dishes, such as breads." 

Indian Pudding 

5 c. milk ^ c. molasses 

I c. Indian meal i t. salt 

I t. ginger 

Cook meal and milk in a double boiler 20 minutes ; add 
molasses, salt, and ginger. Pour into buttered pudding dish 
and bake 2 hours in a slow oven. Serve with cream. 

Molded Corn Meal 

I c. corn meal t t. salt 

I tb. flour I c. cold milk or water 

2 c. boiling water 

Mix dry ingredients, add cold liquid, and stir until smooth ; 
then add boiling water. Cook directly over stove or gas 5 min- 
utes, stirring all the time to prevent burning. Cook i to 2 hours 
over boiling water. If wanted for frying, turn into a wet pan 
or dish to stiffen ; cover, to prevent crust from forming. When 
cold, cut in slices ^ inch thick ; dip each slice in flour, and brown 
in enough smoking fat to keep from burning. Serve hot, with 
sirup or molasses or caramel sauce. Other cereals, when cold, 
may be browned in the same way. 

If to be used as a breakfast cereal, the flour may be omitted 
and 1 c. more water added. 



128 A COl'KSK I\ HOrSKHOLI) ARTS 

Molded corn meal will brown more quickly when fried if 
a portion of the liquid used is milk. 

Caramel Sauce 

^ c. sugar ^ c. boiling water 

Put sugar into a small frying pan or a saucepan ; stir con- 
stantly over the fire until melted to a light brown sirup. Add 
water and boil lo minutes. Cool before serving. Fifteen drops 
of vanilla may be used to flavor sirup. 

MACARONI 

Macaroni, spaghetti, vermicelli, and the various forms of 
Italian pastes are made from a wheat flour rich in gluten. The 
flour is made into a stiff paste with hot water, kneaded for a 
short time, and then pressed by machinery through holes in the 
bottom of a metal cylinder, forming tubes, ribbons, etc., which 
are then dried ; or the mixture may be rolled and cut into vari- 
ous shapes, and then dried. These pastes absorb about three 
times their wxight of water in cooking. Boiling, salted water 
is used, the macaroni, etc., being cooked until soft enough to be 
easily divided when pressed against the side of the saucepan 
with the side of a fork. 

Tests for good macaroni: (i) a creamy color; (2) break- 
ing with a flinty fracture, and not splitting; (3) not losing its 
tubular shape nor growing pasty when cooked; (4) swelling 
to nearly three times its bulk when boiled; (5) when cooked 
it will be tender and have a slightly sweetish taste as well as 
the characteristic nutty flavor. 

Note. — Durum or macaroni wheats were introduced into this coun- 
try from Russia. They have large and very hard grains which contain 
a larger proportion of nitrogenous material than common wheats. 



STARCHES AXD SUGAR 12g 

Durum wheat is used chiefly in the manufacture of a coarse, granular 
flour called semolina, from which macaroni and other edihle pastes are 
made. Durum flour is used also in breadmaking, either alone or with 
other flours ; and notwithstanding the fact that the hardness of the 
grains increases the cost of grinding, its use for the purpose of blending 
with other flours is increasing. — Fanners' Bulletin 534. 

Boiled Macaroni 

1 c. macaroni, broken into 2 qt.s. l^oiling water 
inch pieces t tb. salt 

Cook macaroni in the boiling, salted water 20 to 30 minutes, 
or until soft. Turn it into a strainer ; pour over it a cup of cold 
water, to prevent pieces from clinging together. Reheat and 
serve hot, with butter, pepper, and salt, or in white sauce. 
Spaghetti or vermicelli may be used instead of macaroni. 
Vermicelli need not be broken and will cook in 10 to 15 minutes. 

Boiled Macaroni with Tomato Sauce and Cheese 

Drain the cooked macaroni, return it to the saucepan, and 
place it where it will keep hot. 

Tomato Sauce for Macaroni 

\ onion 4 tb. salad oil or butter 

^ stalk celery | can tomatoes or 

2 or 3 sprigs of parsley 4 or 5 tomatoes sliced 
Very small piece of bay leaf \ t. salt; pepper 

Chop fine the onion, celery, and parsley ; put them with the 
bay leaf, if used, into a saucepan with the oil, and cook, stirring 
constantly, until the onion is yellow. Add the tomatoes and 
seasoning, and cook slowly until tomatoes are soft and the 
sauce thick. Add more seasoning if necessary, and strain over 
the macaroni in the saucepan, which should be placed over the 



130 A COURSE IX HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

heat. With a fork and spoon mix the sauce and tomato thor- 
oughly, and add 2 or 3 tb. of grated Parmesan or other cheese. 
Serve immediately. The cheese may be omitted. 

Baked Macaroni 

Put boiled macaroni into a buttered baking dish, pour over 
it I c. thin white sauce, cover with buttered crumbs, and bake 
in a hot oven till top is brown. 

To butter crumbs: Allow i to 4 tb. butter for each cup of 
crumbs. Melt the butter and add the crumbs, stirring until 
butter is absorbed. Part of the seasoning may be mixed with 
the crumbs. 

Baked Macaroni with Tomato 

Substitute stewed and strained tomato for milk and make 
as white sauce, using flour, salt, pepper, and butter in same 
proportions. A tablespoonful of fine chopped onion may be 
cooked in the butter, if desired, before flour is added. 

Note. — Pour tomatoes or other canned goods into an earthen dish 
as soon as opened. Let stand an hour, if possible, before using, to 
become aerated. 

Baked Macaroni with Cheese 

Put boiled macaroni into a baking dish in layers ; sprinkle 
each layer with grated cheese. Pour thin white sauce over, 
cover with buttered crumbs, and bake until crumbs are brown. 

Baked Macaroni w^ith Bacon 

Arrange cooked macaroni in layers, using white sauce or 
brown gravy to moisten. Add a few slices of fried bacon 
or ham, broken into small pieces. Ham or bacon fat may be 
used instead of butter in makinq^ the sauce. 



STAKClIi:S AM) SUGAR I3I 

RICE 

Of all the cereals, rice is the richest in starch (having about 
76 per cent ) and the poorest in protein and fat. Since rice is 
easiU' di2:ested — it contains but little cellulose and its starch 
granules are very small — it is often used in invalid cookery. 
When boiled, rice absorbs nearly five times its weight of water 
and loses some of its already small amount of mineral matter. 
It is preferable, therefore, to cook it by steaming, though more 
time is required. The water in which rice has been boiled may. 
however, be utilized in mixing bread, or may be combined with 
vegetables and as a basis for soups. The older and drier the 
rice, the longer it takes to soften. 

When properly cooked, the kernels should be whole and 
distinct, yet perfectly soft. If rice is a wet, sticky, pasty mass, 
it has been cooked too long ; or in the case of steamed rice, too 
nuich water has been added. Boiled rice will also be sticky if 
too little water is used, or if it boils away so that what remains 
l)ecomes thickened with starch and will not drain away com- 
])letely. If boiled rice is put into a strainer to drain and a very 
little cold water poured over it, the kernels will be separate 
and distinct. It should then be dried a little by placing the dish 
containing it in a warm oven for a few minutes with the door 
open. 

During its preparation for marketing, many rice kernels 
become broken. The broken grains are separated from the 
whole kernels and sold at a cheaper rate. They are just as 
nutritious as the whole grains, but do not make so good an 
appearance when cooked. 

Custom demands rice having a very highly polished surface, 
which is obtained by the sacrifice of some of the most nutritious 
portions of the grain during the polishing process, including 



132 A COURSE IN HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

nearly all the fat, to which much of the natural flavor of the 
rice is believed to be due. 

It is estimated that the portion of the grain which is re- 
moved by polishing (rice '* polish," or flour) is nearly twice 
as valuable for food as the polished rice. 

In preparing rice for their own use, the farmers of the 
South follow the oriental custom of removing the hulls and 
bran with a pounder, instead of by more modern methods. 
The grain is not polished, and the rice, therefore, is of much 
higher food value and of better flavor. 

Natural brown, unpolished rice can be purchased at the 
present time. 

Rice is sometimes coated with talc or other substances, to 
improve its appearance or to keep it from injury by insects. 
Rice should therefore be very thoroughly washed before 
cooking. 

To "ci'ash rice: Put rice in a strainer ; place strainer in a pan 
of water and rub the rice between the hands. Change water 
two or three times, or until rice is clean, when the water will 
be clear. 

Steamed Rice No. i 

I c. rice 3 c. boiling water 

I t. salt 

Pick over the rice. Wash thoroughly. Put boiling water 
and salt in top of double boiler ; place this over stove or gas 
until water boils, and add rice slowly. Boil 5 minutes, then 
place top part of double boiler over the lower part. Cook with- 
out stirring from 30 to 45 minutes, or till soft. To test rice, 
taste a kernel or crush it between the thumb and finger. The 
rice is done when no hard particle can be detected in the center. 
Stir lightly from the bottom with a fork, to avoid crushing the 



STARCHES AND SUGAR 1 33 

kernels ; let it dry slightly, uncovered, on back of range. Serve 
plain, as a vegetable, or mold it by pressing lightly into cups, 
and turn out on dish in which it is to be served. Serve with 
cream or milk or a pudding sauce, as sweet white sauce or an 
Qgg sauce. 

Steamed Rice No. 2 

T c. rice 2 c. boiling water 

I t. salt 

Put the washed rice into a buttered tin or earthenware 
pudding dish, with the salt and boiling water. Have ready a 
squash strainer or a steamer, placed over a kettle containing 
boiling water. Do not allow the water to reach the steamer. 
Put the dish with the rice and salted water into the steamer. 
Cover; keep the water boiling until the rice is soft. 

A piece of thin cloth may be used to cover the steamer 
before putting on the tin cover, to absorb the moisture from 
the under part of cover and prevent it from dropping on the 
rice. 

Egg Sauce 

J c. hot milk I c. powdered sugar 

2 eggs, whites and yolks 30 drops vanilla 
separated 

Heat the milk ; beat egg yolks until creamy ; add half the 
sugar, beat well, and add the hot milk gradually. Beat the 
whites very stiff, add remaining sugar gradually ; combine with 
yolk mixture. Add vanilla last. 



134 A COURSE IN HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

Boiled Rice No. i 

I c. rice 3 qt. l^oiling water 

I tb. salt 

Pick over and wash the rice. Have the water boiHng 
rapidly ; add salt. Sprinkle the rice in slowly, so that water 
will not stop boiling. It should boil so rapidly that the kernels 
are kept in motion all the time; if the kernels should settle to 
the bottom of kettle, stir gently with a fork, to prevent burn- 
ing. Cook the rice 15 or 20 minutes, or until soft. Pour into 
a strainer to drain ; reserve the water for thickening soup, etc. 
Pour over the rice half a cup of cold water ; then put rice into 
a dish and place where it will keep warm for 5 minutes, or until 
kernels are somewhat dry. Serve hot. 

Boiled Rice No. 2^ 

* 

I c. rice 2 tb. salt 

5 qt. boiling water 

Look the rice over carefully and place it in a strainer set 
in a bowl of cold water. Wash it with the hands, changing the 
water as often as is necessary until all cloudiness disappears. 
Soak for i hour. Have the water boiling vigorously, add salt, 
drain the rice, and sprinkle it in so slowly that the water does 
not stop boiling. Boil violently 15 minutes, l)ut be careful not 
to overcook. When no hard core can be felt on pinching the 
kernel between the thumb and finger, it is done. Pour into a 
colander, saving the rice water for soup. Set a colander ove" 
a pot containing a little boiling water or in a cool oven, and let 
it steam until ready to serve. Each grain should be large and 
perfectly distinct. 

* Cornell Bulletin : " Rice and Rice C'ookcrv." 



STARCHES AXl) SUGAR 1^5 

Serve as a vegetable by itself in an uncovered dish, or as 
a border for creamed meats, fish, and eggs, fricasseed chicken, 
veal cutlets, and the like. Mot boiled rice is delicious with 
tomato sauce, brown gravy, or cheese sauce. 

In order to prepare cold rice for croquettes and salads, 
spread well-steamed rice lightly on a large plate or platter. 

Rice Water 

2 tb. rice 4 c. boiling water 

Pick over and wash rice, add water, and let it soak 30 
minutes. Heat gradually to boiling point, then cook until rice 
is very soft and partially dissolved. Press through a tine wire 
strainer ; add salt or sugar to taste. Serve hot or cold and add 
milk if desired. 

Cream Rice Pudding 

l c. rice ^ t. salt 

4 c. milk ^ c. sugar 

Soak the washed rice in the cold milk 30 minutes ; put it into 
a pudding dish and bake, covered, in a moderate oven, 2 hours, 
or until rice is soft and partially dissolved in the milk. Stir 
occasionally, and add salt and sugar when rice is nearly soft. 
Remove cover the last half hour and brown slightly. Serve hot 
or cold. The pudding may be cooked on top of the stove until 
it is to be browned. 

SUGAR 

Sugar is a useful and valuable food. Like starch, sugar is 
a carbohydrate, and can therefore yield Jieat and energy to the 
body. Aside from its sweet taste, sugar differs from starch in 
being soluble in either cold or hot w^ater. It is more soluble 
in hot water than in cold. 



13^ A COURSE IX HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

Within certain limits, sugar may be considered as the 
equivalent of starch that has been digested and made ready for 
the body to use. All starchy food must be changed by the diges- 
tive juices into a certain form of sugar before it can be absorbed 
as food. When any starchy food is taken into the mouth, the 
starch is at once acted upon more or less by a ferment contained 
in the saliva, and this action is continued by another ferment in 
the intestines. The starch is changed into simpler substances 
and finally into glucose, the only ,form of sugar which can be 
''burned" in the body to yield muscular energy and heal. 

Miss Rose sa3\s in effect {Human Nutrition, Part I , Cornell Bulletin 
No. 6) that since all the starch eaten is eventually turned to sugar before 
it reaches the blood and it is carried to the cells, it may be asked, Why 
may not sugar take the place of starch in the dietary? In the first place, 
starch is digested slowly and is changed to sugar by the digestive juices 
only a little at a time. This little is very much diluted, and can be made 
use of as soon as absorbed. Sugar, on the contrary, is ready or nearly 
ready to pass into the blood stream, and it may pass in too quickly and 
in too large quantities to be properly cared for, and may thus cause 
disturbances inside the body as well as in the digestive tract. 

The rapid assimilation of sugar makes it useful in prevent- 
ing or overcoming fatigue during periods of great muscular 
activity or exhausting labor, but for persons of ordinary diges- 
tive powers, when there is sufficient time for the digestion and 
utilization of starch, sugar has no advantage over starch, writes 
Mary H. Abel in Farmers' Bulletin ^3^. She says also that 
sugar, being a concentrated food, should be eaten in moder- 
ate quantities, and like other concentrated foods seems best 
fitted for the use of the body when taken in connection with 
other foods which dilute it or give it the necessary bulk. Candy, 
therefore, should not be eaten to excess, nor habitually between 
meals. 

A lump of sugar contains about as much nutriment as an ounce of 
potato, but while the potato will be eaten only because hunger prompts. 



STARCHES AND SUGAR 1 37 

the sugar, because of its taste, may be taken when the appetite has been 
fully satisfied. — Sugar and Its Value as Food. Fanners' Bulletin, 555. 

Sugar differs greatly from starch in the amount that can 
be used properly in the body, for while large quantities of 
starchy foods like bread, potatoes, etc., can be digested without 
difficulty, four or five ounces of sugar a day seems to be as much 
as the average adult can eat under ordinary circumstances with- 
out ill effects. A person doing hard work or exercising in the 
open air, however, especially in cold weather, can digest with- 
out difffculty a much larger quantity than one living indoors 
and taking little exercise. 

In continuation, Mrs. Abel says, in effect, that when the 
diet of children is in question, the fact that sugar has a high 
food value is not the only point to be considered. Because of 
the great activity of the child, the desire for sweets is a natural 
one ; sugar supplies energy most readily. In the case of chil- 
dren under a year old, who have little or no power to digest 
starch, the needed carbohydrate is supplied by the sugar in the 
milk, which is its natural food. The older child will easily 
obtain carbohydrates in other forms, as in well-cooked cereals, 
in simple puddings, etc., and in sweet fruits fully ripened. 
Many of the best authorities state that the child, up to its third 
year, should never be allowed to taste sweets, in order that its 
appetite may not be spoiled for simple, wholesome foods ; and 
in particular that from the very first no sugar should be added 
to the dish of cereal or of bread and milk, which should form 
the staple food of the child. 

One of the main objections to the abnormal amounts of candy 
consumed by children is that the highly flavored sweet substance satis- 
fies the appetite, which should be satisfied by a more varied diet. It is 
said that a frequent cause of decayed teeth among children is due not 
to the direct effect of the candy on the teeth, but to the fact that in the 
over-supply of candy there has been an under-supply of the bone-building 
materials such as lime and phosphorus. — Cornell Bulletin Xo. 6. 



138 A COURSE IN HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

Candy: In cooking sugar for candy, use an agate or iron 
pan, as it is less liable to burn than in tin. Butter pans before 
beginning to cook candy. 

Have ready some cold water in which to try the candy. 

When candy is poured into the pan, do not scrape the sauce- 
pan over it, nor allow any of the "scrapings" to fall into it. 
Stirring candy while boiling or while cooling will cause it to 
become sugary. Acid substances, such as cream of tartar, vine- 
gar, or lemon juice, added to the candy while cooking will help 
to keep it ''clear" by preventing crystallization. 

Barley Candy 

I c. granulated sugar J t. cream of tartar or 

i c. water i t. lemon juice or vinegar 

Mix ingredients together before heating. Cook, ivithoiit 
stirring, until a few drops put into cold water will harden. Fioil 
until the sirup turns light yellow ; remove at once from fire and 
turn into a buttered pan. When nearly cool, mark into squares 
with a slightly warm and buttered chopping knife. The candy 
may be cooled in round muffin tins. 

Glace Nuts 

Cook sugar, water, and cream of tartar together, as for 
Barley Candy. As soon as the sirup begins to change color, 
remove saucepan from the fire. Dip one or two nuts at a time 
into the sirup, lift out with a buttered fork, and place on a 
buttered pan. The sirup should be disturbed as little as possible. 
When it gets too cool, it may be reheated once or twice, but is 
liable to burn after the second time. If in danger of burning, 
the sirup may be used for fruit or nut bar. 



STARCHES AND SUGAR 1 39 

Fruit or Nut Bar 

Have ready in a buttered, shallow pan a layer, about an inch 
deep, of nut meats or candied fruit cut into pieces, or a mixture 
of both. Pour over them the hot sirup. When partly cooled, 
mark into bars and squares. 

Dried or shredded cocoanut, seeded raisins, or puffed rice 
may also be used ; or figs, dates, citron, etc., cut into suitable 
pieces. 

Peanut Candy 

2 c. granulated sugar f c. chopped peanuts 

4 t. salt 

Remove the skin from shelled peanuts ; chop or roll the nuts 
fine, add the salt, and keep them warm in a dish placed on the 
back of the stove. Have ready a tin sheet or an inverted bak- 
ing pan, slightly warmed, to keep candy from hardening too 
quickly. Melt the sugar in an agate or iron saucepan, and stir 
constantly to prevent burning. When melted to a clear, light 
sirup, stir in the chopped peanuts and turn candy at once onto 
the pan, which need not be buttered. Shape candy as nearly 
square as possible and mark into squares before it cools. 

Horehound Candy 

■J sq. in. pressed horehound ^ c. boiling water 

leaves i| c. sugar 

4 t. cream of tartar 

Pour the boiling water on the horehound ; let it stand 
I minute, then strain through fine cloth. Put the strained liquid 
into saucepan with the sugar and cream of tartar, and boil until 
it begins to change color and hardens when tried in cold water. 
Do not stir while boiling. Pour into buttered pans and mark 
into squares while warm. Break apart when cold. Keep closely 
covered in tin or glass. 



140 A COURSE IN HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

Butter Taffy 

2 c. brown sugar Juice of | lemon or 

i c. butter i tb. vinegar 

2 tb. water 

Cook all the ingredients together until mixture will "snap" 
when tested in cold water. Pour into a buttered pan and mark 
into squares while warm. One-half cup chopped nuts may be 
added. 

Sirup for Cornballs 

2 c. molasses ^ c. sugar 2 tb. butter 

Cook together until the mixture is brittle when tested in cold 
water. Pour over popcorn and shape into balls. To use for 
candy, add ^ t. of cooking soda before pouring into the pans. 
When slightly cool, pull until light-colored, and cut into pieces. 

Cocoanut Drops 

I c. sugar I c. molasses i c. grated cocoanut 

Cook sugar and molasses together, stirring constantly until 
a little of the mixture will harden in cold water. Remove from 
fire, add cocoanut, and stir until candy thickens. Drop by the 
spoonful onto a buttered pan and cool. 



CHAPTER XI 
Flour, Yeasts, and Bread 

Bread in one form or another is probably more generally 
eaten than any other kind of food, except, perhaps, milk. Bread 
has been known since the earliest times of which we have any 
historical record, and though bread made at different periods 
and by different races varied greatly in character, "ever since 
the far-off days when the wild cereals were first found or culti- 
vated, men have known that food prepared from them would 
support life and strength better than any other single food 
except milk." 

Because of its extensive use and the important part played 
by bread as the "staff of life," something should be known 
about the materials from which bread is made, the changes 
which occur during its making and baking, its nutritive value 
and digestibility, and the best methods of preparing it. 

Bread is divided broadly into tzco general classes, leavened 
bread and unleavened bread. Leavened bread is that which is 
"raised," or made light and porous by the addition of yeast 
or other "leavening agent," as any substance used for this 
purpose in mixtures of flour or meal is termed. 

The simplest forms of bread are the unleavened varieties, 
examples of which are hoe-cake, old-fashioned Johnnie cake, 
the unleavened Passover bread of the Hebrews, and certain 
varieties of crackers or biscuit. These are made from meal or 
flour, mixed with water and baked. Such breads are hard and 
dry, and are usually baked in very thin cakes, as otherwise 
they would be unpalatable and difficult to masticate. Baked in 
this form, however, they will keep indefinitely. It is said that 

141 



142 A COURSK IX HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

originally Johnnie cakes were called "journey cakes," because 
tliey could be conveniently carried when traveling. 

JVheat or flour from any of the cereals may be used for 
unleavened bread ; leavened bread can be made only from those 
cereals which, like wheat and rye, contain the protein substance 
i^^Iutcn. 

Though wheat varies as to kind, the climate, and other 
conditions, the average composition of wheat flour is as follows : 



















Pe 


r cent 


Protein (gluten 


, etc.) 
















11.4 


Carbohydrates i 


[chiefly 


starch, 


with 


a 


little 


sugar, 


etc.) 




75-1 


Fat 


















I. 


Mineral matter 


















0.5 


Water 


















12. 



lOO.O 

The qualities and properties of wheat depend more upon the condi- 
tions of the soil, the temperature, the rainfall, etc., of the place where 
it is grown than upon the species to which it belongs, and variations in 
these factors result in the production of two general classes: (i) soft 
and starchy wheats and (2) hard and glutinous wheats. 

Wheat is also classified, according to the time of sowing, 
as spring zdieat and winter zvJicat, winter wheat being sowed 
in the fall and harvested early in June or July ; while spring 
wheat is planted in the spring and harvested late in July or in 
August. 

*" Spring wheat yields hard grains, which contain an abun- 
dance of tough, elastic gluten. The flour made from such wheat 
is specially fitted for bread made with yeast, because the 
tenacity of its gluten enables the dough to resist the strong 
pressure of gas produced within it by the growth of the yeast. 
Flour made from spring wheat is, therefore, often called bread 
flour. 



FLOUR, YEASTS, AND BREAD I43 

Bread flour is slightly granular in texture and somewhat 
dry: if pressed in the hand, it will fall apart loosely when tlie 
hand is opened. 

IViiiter icheat yields grains which are softer and which 
contain less gluten and proportionately more starch and slightly 
more water than spring wheat. The gluten of winter wheat is 
also less tough than that of spring wheat, which makes it more 
suitable for use in pastry ; therefore, flour made from winter 
wheat is sometimes called pastry flour. The aim at present is 
to mix or "blend" both kinds of wheat before grinding, so that 
the flour produced will combine the best qualities of both and 
be suital^le for any purpose. 

Pastry flour is smooth in texture and rather moist : if pressed 
in the hand, it will retain the shape into which it is pressed. 

Durum zvheat, says Farmers' Bulletin 5J_/, is, botanically, 
very closely related to the common wheats which comprise the 
principal wheat crop of the country. The durum varieties, so 
far as known, are all spring wheats, and while some of them 
have been grown as winter wheats, by planting in the fall, none 
has proved equal to the standard winter common wheats. 

Durum wheat diff"ers from the other spring wheats in the 
size and character of both plant and grain, the former being 
taller and more vigorous than common wheat, while the grains 
are large, and, as the name ''durum" indicates, are very hard. 
There are, of course, wide variations among the different varie- 
ties in the size, shape, color, and general appearance of both 
plant and grain. The Russian varieties have proved superior 
to all others in being well adapted for cultivation in the northern 
area of the Great Plains. 

As previously stated, the chief use of durum wheat is in the 
manufacture of macaroni and of flour for breadmaking; it is 
used also, to a limited extent, for cereal breakfast foods. 



144 A COURSE IN HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

In using durum flour for bread, the dough is sticky and less 
easy to handle than dough made from other flours. The bread 
is yellower in color and the volume of the loaf less, but the 
"strength" or power of absorbing water of the durum flour 
is in general higher than that of common wheat flours ; the 
flavor is as good or better than that of ordinary bread, having 
a distinct nutty taste, and is also slightly sweeter. Bread from 
durum flour holds moisture better than that made from other 
flours. 

Excellent results in breadmaking are obtained by blending 
the durum wheat flour with flours from spring wheat and 
winter wheats. Thus blended, the stickiness of the dough is 
lessened, the color made lighter, and the volume of the loaf 
increased. 

The principal protein in wheat is a mixture of proteins 
known as gluten. Gluten as such does not exist in the wheat, 
but is formed from the union of two of the most abundant 
proteins present, gliadin and glutcnin, which together form 
gluten when flour is moistened and kneaded. Gliadin, a sort ot 
plant gelatin, is the sticky material which binds the flour parti- 
cles together to form dough, and thus gives it tenacity ; and 
the glutcnin is the material to which the gliadin adheres. If 
there is an excess of gliadin, the dough is soft and sticky ; 
while if there is a deficiency, the dough lacks expansive 
power. 

The breadmaking properties of flour, therefore, depend 
chiefly on the gluten. The important thing, however, is not 
entirely the quantity, but rather the character of the gluten, 
and this depends upon the proportions in which the two constit- 
uents, gliadin and glutenin, are present. From the data at hand 
it would appear that the proper proportion of gliadin to glutenin 
in hard wheat flour of the highest breadmaking pro])erties is 



FLOUR, YEASTS, AND BREAD 1 45 

about 65 to 35 in lOO parts. ( IVheat Flour and Bread. Reprint 
from Year-Book of Dept. of Agriculture for 1903.) 

Experiment i. To separate the gluten from flour. — Put 2 tb. bread 
flour into a saucer; add water, a few drops at a time, to make a stiff 
dough. Note the amount of water used. Knead the dough thoroughly, 
then let it stand 20 minutes or longer. Half fill a bowl or pan with cold 
water. Wash the dough in the bowl of water, and rub it between the 
fingers until as much as possible of the starch is washed out. Let 
the water stand until the starch settles, then pour off the water and 
dry the starch. Reserve for further examination. 

Take fresh water and continue to wash the dough until the water 
looks clear, showing that practically all the starch is washed out. 
Squeeze out as much water as possible and collect the sticky, elastic 
substance. This is gluten. 

Experiment 2. Roll the moist gluten into a ball, place on a pan, 
and bake it in a rather hot oven until thoroughly dry. 

Examine the baked gluten outside and inside, and from its expan- 
sion, stiffness, etc., draw conclusions as to the effect of its presence in 
bread. 

Experiments 3 and 4. Repeat experiments i and 2. using pastry 
flour. Compare results with those obtained with the bread flour. 

Rye, like wheat, contains gluten, but the gluten of rye differs 
in some important features from that of wheat. The gliadin 
of rye resembles in its properties the gliadin of wheat, but rye 
contains no protein which corresponds to the glutenin of wheat ; 
and therefore rye flour does not form a gluten similar to the 
gluten of wheat, although it comes nearer to doing so than does 
any other cereal. The bread made from rye flour alone is moist 
and clammy, and lacks the light, spongy texture of that made 
from wheat ; consequently a considerable quantity of wheat 
flour added to the rye makes a much better bread. 

The cereals as a class, as mentioned before, may be said to 
contain on an average about 10 per cent each of water and 
of protein, a very small percentage of fats, and from 60 to 80 
per cent of carbohydrates, chiefly starch. The amount of sugar 
present, though small, is an essential consideration, because 



146 A COURSE IX HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

this is the substance upon which yeast acts directly and out of 
which it can form the gas by which bread is usually made light. 

The protein compounds of the cereals other than wheat and 
r\e, while of nutritive value, are not suitable for breadmaking, 
because they are wholly lacking in the elastic, tenacious prop- 
erty of gluten, which enables a dough containing it to catch 
and hold any gas that comes in contact with it, and to ex- 
pand and ''rise,'' and by its firmness when baked to make a loaf 
which is light and porous. 

Tlic Wlicat Grain. — Structure. The wheat grain is a small, 
oval seed, brownish in color on the outside and white within. 
The brown outside, the ''bran coating,'' as it is called, consists 
of five outer coats, as may be seen when a grain is cut into thin 
slices and examined with a powerful microscope. 

The three principal or outermost layers form what is called 
the skin of the grain, and the two remaining layers form the 
envelope or covering of the seed proper. The outer one is 
known as the "testa," and contains the greater part of the 
coloring matter of the bran, and it is the presence of this which 
makes flour dark. Inside this lies a thin layer of membrane. 

The layer next to the bran is called the cercalinc or alcuroiic 
layer, the large, rectangular cells of which are filled with a 
nitrogenous material known as cerealine or aleurone, and the 
total weight of the bran and aleurone layer together is about 
13 i^er cent of the entire grain. 

Within the bran and aleurone layers lie the starch-contain- 
ing or flour cells. The starchy portion of the seed consists of 
irregular-shaped cells containing the gluten-forming proteins 
and the starch granules, and other substances produced by the 
plant ; and these cells, together with those of the aleurone layer, 
constitute the eudospcnn, as the main central portion of the 
grain or kernel is termed. 



FLOUR, YEASTS, AND BREAD I47 

At the lower end of the grain, ahnost surrounded hy the 
endosperm, is the germ or embryo — the part which, when 
the grain has thoroughly ripened and the conditions are favor- 
able, will develop into a new plant, feeding upon the starch 
and other substances in the endosperm. The cells of the germ 
contain a large proportion of fat. The germ is removed during^ 
the process of grinding, because its fat is liable to become 
rancid and spoil the flour, and also because, if left in, the germ 
will darken the flour. 

Each cell of the very large number making up the wheat 
grain is inclosed by a cell wall of woody fiber or cellulose, which 
differs in character in different parts of the grain, being both 
more woody and more abundant in the outer layers, which are 
ordinarily sifted out from the finer grades of flour. 

The grades of flour most commonly used are Graham, entire 
zvheat, and standard patent flours, the last named being the 
white flour most generally used. 

Graham flour is made by grinding the whole kernel at once, 
including the outer bran coats of almost useless cellulose. It 
is really a wheat meal, the cleaned grain being simply ground 
between two stones or rollers placed as close together as possi- 
ble and having their surfaces cut so as to insure complete crush- 
ing of the grain. This process is known as low milling. As 
Graham flour is not bolted or sifted, it is coarse and contains 
a large proportion of bran. To overcome this objection, much 
of the flour sold as Graham has been subjected to more or less 
sifting, though when thus treated the product is not really the 
Graham flour which was first advocated by an American 
physician. Dr. Sylvester Graham, whence the name. 

White Flour. Standard patent flours, etc., are produced 
by the process known as high roller milling. The grain is 
screened to remove foreign substances, then cleaned and tem- 



14^ A COURSE IN HOUSEHOLD AKTS 

pered, that is, treated with heat and moisture in such a way as 
to make it easier to remove all the bran at one grinding. After 
the bran is removed, the grain is run through five or even more 
])airs of rollers, each successive pair being set a little nearer 
together than the last pair. After each grinding, or ''break." 
as it is termed in milling, the fine flour is sifted out by passing 
it through fine silk bolting cloth, and the "leavings" of each 
sifting, called ''middlings," are themselves ground and sifted 
several times, a number of different streams of flour being thus 
produced, which after purification and other treatment are 
united to form the standard grades. The grades of flour com- 
monly ground from wheat are: (i) First patent; (2) Second 
patent; (3) Straight grade or Standard patent; (4) First 
clear; (5) Second clear; and (6) Red Dog. These various 
flour streams may also be combined to form special brands of 
flour, but mixing the grains before milling is more satisfactory, 
because it gives more uniform results. 

In a mill where the grain goes through a series of six breaks, 
there are as many as eighty different direct milling products, 
varying in quality from the finest white flour to pure ground 
bran. To make sure that each product is up to the standard 
set for it in the mill, samples of it are frequently tested and the 
milling regulated accordingly. 

The first patent is the highest grade of flour manufactured ; 
the gluten in it has a greater power of expansion than that of 
any other grade, and the loaf made is the largest and whitest. 

Second patent is somewhat similar to first patent, but the 
gluten has not so high a power of expansion and the bread is 
a shade darker. 

The first clear grade is obtained after the first and second 
patent have been removed. This grade contains slightly more 
protein than either of the two patent grades, 1nit the gliadin 



FLOUR, VKASTS, AXl) BRICAI) 1 49 

and glutenin are not present in such favorable proportions for 
breadmaking. 

All three of these flours are combined to produce the 
standard patent flour, and the quantity of first or second patent 
flour put upon the market is relatively small compared witli 
that of standard patent, which is also known as "straight 
patent," ''straight grade," "family grade," and "household 
flour." 

Although this flour contains neither the germ nor the bran, 
nearly 73 per cent of the kernel is recovered in it by the modern 
milling processes. 

After the standard patent flour has been removed, there is 
still obtained about 0.5 per cent of a flour called second clear, 
or low grade, which contains a high percentage of protein, but 
with a gluten of poor quality for breadmaking. Lastly, there is 
the so-called "red dog" flour, the lowest grade produced, which 
is obtained mainly from the germ or embryo and the parts of 
the wheat nearest to it. It contains large proportions of protein 
and fat, but since the proteins of the wheat germ are decidedly 
diflferent from gluten in character and composition, germ flour 
has little power of expansion and produces a poorly raised, 
dark-colored loaf. 

Entire or z^'holc wheat flour is also produced by high roller 
milling, and differs from ordinary flours mainly in that about 
one-half of the bran is removed before grinding, leaving the 
inner portion of the bran and the aleurone layer. This flour 
is finer than Graham, but not so fine as the patent grades of 
flour, from which all the bran is removed. Some of the whole 
wheat flour is made, it is said, by including with the patent 
grades the middlings and low grade flours, with considerable 
of the germ. 

Gluten flour is the name applied to flour prepared by re- 



150 A COURSE IX HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

moving the greater part of the starch. Such flours are prepared 
especially for persons who are unable to digest starch, and as 
the name ''gluten flour" has been commonly applied to flours 
containing only a slightly higher percentage of protein than 
ordinary flour, and sometimes even to ordinary wheat flour or 
mixtures of whole wheat flour, middlings, and bran, a standard 
was necessary. The United States Government standard re- 
quires that gluten flour be made from flour by the removal of 
starch, and that it contain at least 35 per cent of protein and 
not over 10 per cent moisture. 

Tests for Quality of Flour. To determine the exact quality 
of a flour, very complicated chemical tests are necessary ; 
*'but," says Farmers' Bulletin ^8p, Bread and Breadmaking, 
"there are certain general rules by which a good bread flour 
may be judged ofifhand. In general, the flour housewives prefer 
is white with a faint yellow tinge. After being pressed in the 
hand, flour should fall loosely apart ; if it stays in lumps, it has 
too much moisture in it. When rubbed between the fingers it 
should not feel too smooth and powdery, but its individual 
particles should be vaguely distinguishable ; when put between 
the teeth it should 'crunch' a little; its taste should be sweet 
and nutty, w^ithout a suspicion of acidity. . . . An intelligent 
housekeeper who wishes to know the quality of the flour she is 
buying could easily learn from the dealer or the miller the 
character of different brands and could use samples to compare 
their breadmaking qualities in her own kitchen before buying 
her supply for the season." 

Care of Flour. Flour which leaves the mill in good condi- 
tion will not remain so unless it is properly cared for. Molds 
and bacteria may spoil the flavor and breadmaking qualities of 
flour ; and as dampness and darkness are favorable for their 
growth, a dry, well-lighted storeroom is best for flour, as well 



FLOUR, YEASTS, AND BREAD I5I 

as for all cereal products. The color of flour, like many natural 
colors, fades more or less during storage and the Hour becomes 
whiter. Flour absorbs moisture readily, consequently the 
amount of moisture contained will vary according to the dry- 
ness or humidity of the place of storage. For this reason, and 
also because of the fact that Hour absorbs odors readily, the 
storeroom should be well ventilated ; and flour should not l^e 
stored in the vicinity of fresh varnish, fresh pine wood, decay- 
ing vegetables, kerosene, smoked meats, or tish, or other sub- 
stances with a pronounced odor. 

YEASTS 

Yeast is used to make bread light and porous, and therefore 
more digestible, because the greater amount of surface exposed 
enables the digestive juices to act upon it more readily. One- 
fourth of a yeast cake is usually allowed for one pint of liquid 
when it is desired that the bread rise slowdy, over night, for 
example. The more yeast used the more quickly the bread will 
rise, but too much will give an unpleasant flavor. One, two, or 
even four yeast cakes may be used with one pint of liquid when 
it is desirable to hasten the process. By this *' short " or '' quick '* 
process, bread can be made and baked in five hours or less. 

Vcast is composed of a mass of tiny plants belonging to the 
class of budding fungi. Under the microscope, a single yea^t 
plant is seen to be a nearly colorless round or oval cell. 

Three kinds of yeast are used in breadmaking : liquid, dry, 
and compressed yeast. At the present time, the yeast most 
commonly used in the home is the compressed yeast cake. The 
yeast for these cakes is obtained from distilleries. The frotli 
which rises during the manufacture of whisky from prepared 
grain contains innumerable yeast cells. This froth is skimmed 



152 A COURSK IX HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

off, mixed with water, and strained, the process being repeated 
several times. When sufficiently washed, the yeast cells are 
allowed to settle and the water removed. The yeast is next 
pressed into large cakes, with or without starch. These are cut 
into smaller cakes, which are wrapped in tin foil to keep them 
moist and clean. 

Compressed yeast is the most convenient and reliable that 
has been produced. In the fresh cake nearly all of tlie yeast 
plants are alive and vigorous, says Professor Conn in Bacteria, 
Yeasts, and Molds in the Home, and the results obtained from 
their use are almost uniformly satisfactory. Compressed yeast 
must be used while fresh, however, or the results will not be 
satisfactory. Professor Conn continues : 

If a yeast cake is kept for a day or two only, the plants begin 
to die, and after three or four days only a small number of them 
may be alive. Yeast when a few days old, therefore, will not 
raise the bread as quickly as a fresh cake. The loss of activity 
in an old yeast cake is not the only disadvantage, since the com- 
mercial yeast cake always contains microscopic plants, among 
which are bacteria, as well as other species of yeasts : and these 
may cause unpleasant flavors through the undesirable fermen- 
tation to which they give rise. 

If it should be necessary to keep a yeast cake some days 
before using it, put it into cold water in a refrigerator. Do not 
allow it to freeze. 

Characteristics of a Good Yeast Cake. A good compressed yeast 
cake should be firm and slighdy moist ; it should be creamy white in color 
throughout, and when broken it should be brittle, breaking off clean 
without bending. When placed on the tongue it should melt readily ; 
it should have an odor of apples, not of cheese, neither should it have 
an acid odor or taste. Any cheesy odor shows that the yeast is stale and 
that incipient decomposition has set in. — Jago: The Technology of 
Breadmakins. 



FLOUR, YEASTS, AND HRKAD 153 

Dry yeasts are prepared by mixing fresh yeast with flour, 
meal, or starch, pressing the mixture into httle cakes, and then 
drying them at a low heat. Being without moisture, the yeast 
cells remain inactive ; and though drying may inj ure or kill 
some of them, a great many remain alive a long time in the 
dried yeast cake, and are capable of growing when placed under 
proper conditions. 

When ready to use, the dried yeast cake should be soaked 
in warm water containing a small amount of sugar, which 
furnishes food for the yeast plant. The warm water will soon 
bring it into a condition to grow and produce fermentation 
when added to bread dough. Potato water may be used because 
of its stimulating effect on the action of the yeast. 

Liquid yeasts were in former years almost universally used, 
but have practically disappeared from the household, being less 
convenient and also less reliable than either the compressed or 
dried yeasts. Liquid yeasts are susceptible to changes in the 
weather, and unless they are made and kept with great care 
are likely to contain the bacteria which produce fermentations 
that give to bread a disagreeable taste and odor. 

Yeast Growth. Yeast grows best when supplied with air 
(or oxygen, more strictly speaking), warmth, moisture, and a 
sweet, nitrogenous soil, with some mineral matter. If a grow- 
ing yeast cell is watched, after a time a bulging appears near 
one end. This is called a "bud." The bud increases in size 
gradually until it forms a new cell, which may remain attached 
to the first one and bud in its turn, or it may separate and bud. 
Yeast, therefore, is said to reproduce by "budding." Under 
favorable conditions this increase may be very rapid. The 
temperature most favorable for the growth of yeast is between 
yy° and 95° F. Cold water will chill yeast so that it cannot 
grow, and water above 122° F. will kill it ; therefore liikezvann 
water is best for breadmaking. 



154 A COURSE IN HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

As the yeast cells grow they produce changes in the sub- 
stances which supply them with food, the cells themselves 
merely increasing in number. 

If a little yeast is put into a slightly warm, sweet liquid, 
as molasses and water, and allowed to stand in a warm place 
for some hours, several changes may be observed. Bubbles will 
appear and form a froth. A peculiar odor may be noticed, and 
if the liquid is tasted it will be found to be no longer sweet. 
These changes are due to the action of the yeast, which under 
suitable conditions has the power to change sugar into alcohol 
and a gas, called carbon dioxide. This process is known as 
"alcoholic fermentation," and the substance in the yeast which 
causes it is called a '' ferment," or enzyme. The peculiar odor 
noticed is due to the alcohol formed, and the froth is caused 
by the bubbles of the carbon dioxide gas produced. The same 
changes take place when the familiar root beer is made, the gas 
being compressed within the bottle. Its sudden expansion when 
the bottle is opened causes the flying of the cork, etc. If fer- 
mentation is allowed to continue too long, or at too high a 
temperature, the conditions become unfavorable for the growth 
of the yeast, because of the production of an amount of alcohol 
sufficient to render the yeast plant torpid. When the yeast 
ceases to grow, the bacteria present become active, and by their 
growth produce acids, which cause the liquid to turn sour. 

When yeast is mixed with flour and a lukewarm liquid and 
kept in a warm place, all the conditions needed for its growth 
are supplied. The changes which then take place are compli- 
cated, and are not all well understood. The most important are 
the changing of some of the starch of the flour into a kind of 
sugar (by a substance contained in the flour itself, or by a 
ferment in the yeast), and the changing of the sugar in the 
flour into alcohol and carbon dioxide gas by the action of 



FLOUR, YEASTS, AND BREAD 155 

the yeast. The production of this gas fills the dough full of 
bubbles, and the tough, elastic gluten of the flour gives to tlie 
dough its power to stretch and rise as the gas from the yeast 
expands within the dough, making it light and porous. 

BREAD 

Ingredients. The essential ingredients of bread are flour, 
liquid, yeast, and salt. Salt is added for flavor ; salt also has a 
tendency to retard fermentation ; and therefore when quick 
raising is desired, the salt should be added toward the end of 
the mixing. 

Sugar in small amount hastens the process of raising. 
Shortening (fat of some kind, as lard, butter, beef dripping, 
etc.) is often used to make the bread more tender, to add to the 
flavor, and to aid in keeping it moist. 

The liquids commonly used are water, milk, or milk and 
water in equal proportions. 

Water should be boiled, and milk should be heated in a 
double boiler until small bubbles appear around the edge ; both 
should be cooled until lukewarm before adding the yeast. The 
dough made with milk rises a little more slowly, but milk gives 
to bread a better color, flavor, and texture, and adds to its 
nutriment. Skimmed milk may be used to good advantage. 

The water in which potatoes have been boiled is sometimes 
used ; a boiled potato mashed fine is added to the dough to 
hasten the rising, as a substance present in potatoes acts as a 
"tonic" and will stimulate the action of the yeast plant. 

Water produces a finer-textured, sweeter-flavored, but more 
inelastic bread than do any of the liquids ordinarily used for 
mixing, but such bread dries out more rapidly than any other. 

When potato water is used, the lightness and sponginess of the 
bread is increased to a marked degree. The use of milk, either sweet 



156 A couRsr-: in household arts 

or sour, or of potato water, also increases slightly the rapidity of fer- 
mentation, but the use of buttermilk increases it somewhat more. Potato 
water increases greatly the keeping qualities of the bread in which it is 
used. Milk, either sweet or soin-, also increases such qualities, but to a 
less extent. — Some Results of a Study of the Factors of Breadmaking. 
Anna A. Williams, Journal of Home Economics, February, 1914. 

Temperature. The mixing and raising of bread should be 
done in a warm place, as free as possible from drafts ; but too 
high a temperature should be avoided. All the ingredients 
should be at least lukewarm, because yeast develops best at a 
moderately high temperature, 80° F. being a good average for 
quick raising. 

In cold weather keep the flour in a warm, not hot, place for 
three or four hours before using. Sift flour before using, to 
mix air with it and also make it more easily worked. 

Dough. Flour may be made into dough at the first mixing, 
such a dough being termed a "straight" or ''ofifhand" dough : 
or a batter or ''sponge" may be prepared by mixing the yeast. 
Hquid, etc., and adding to them at first only about one-half 
the required amount of flour, and allowing it to raise until 
full of bubbles. The remainder of the flour is then added and 
kneaded in very thoroughly. The continuation of the process 
from this point is the same as for a straight dough. 

The dough should not be made too stifif; a moderately 
soft dough makes bread of a more tender, even texture, and 
insures its keeping moist longer than bread made from a 
stifif dough. A general proportion is about three times as much 
flour as liquid. No exact rule can be given, however, owing 
to the difference in flours. The amount of flour required for 
a dough of a certain consistency varies also according to the 
liquid used. By a little practical experience the right consist- 
ency is soon learned. 



FLOUR, YEASTS, AND BREAD 15/ 

Kneading and Raising. Dough is kneaded the first time to 
mix the ingredients thoroughly ; kneading also incorporates 
air in the dough and makes the gluten more elastic. Continue 
the kneading until the dough is ^looth and elastic, and will not 
stick to the board or hands. Place dough in a bowl or pan large 
enough to allow for rising, and put in a warm place ; cover 
closely to prevent a crust from forming, or rub the top with 
soft butter or lard. When the dough is raised to twice its 
original size, cut it down, or knead it a second time ; for if the 
rising of the dough is allowed to proceed too far, the growth 
of the yeast plant is checked by the accumulation of the products 
of fermentation. If these, however, are allowed to escape, 
through the process of cutting down or kneading the dough, 
the yeast again becomes active, and the souring of the dough 
by bacteria is thus prevented. 

Bacteria may gain access to the dough from the yeast, the flour, 
or the other ingredients ; or from the utensils, or the hands of the mixer. 
The utmost cleanliness should, therefore, be observed, not only in the 
making and handling of bread, but with every utensil with which it comes 
in contact ; not only because clean food is most desirable, but also because 
otherwise bacteria may get into the bread and produce harmful fermen- 
tations. The use of bread mixers is preferred to hand kneading by many, 
owing partly to the saving of time and labor, and also because so little 
handling is necessary. 

This second kneading forces out most of the gas and makes 
the bread of a fine, even texture, and should be continued only 
until no large bubbles can be seen when the dough is cut apart. 
Use little or no flour during second kneading. Xext, shape 
dough into loaves or biscuit and put into the pans ; let them 
rise once more until nearly or quite double their bulk. 

Baking. When bread is raised sufficiently, bake until brown 
all over and a hollow sound is produced when the loaf is tapj^ed 
with the finger ; loaves require fifty to sixty minutes and biscuit 
fifteen to twenty minutes, or more, according to their size. 



158 A COURSE TX HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

The heat of the oven causes the dough to rise higher by 
expanding the gas within it and also by changing the water 
into steam. The yeast cells and some of the bacteria are killed, 
and the alcohol, carbon dioxide, and part of the moisture are 
driven ofif. The starch and gluten of the flour are cooked, 
the starch being made more soluble .and the gluten stiffened 
so that even after the gas has escaped the walls still retain 
the shape of the bubbles, making the interior or "crumb'' firm 
and spongy, and the exterior or crust crisp and dry. Tlie 
more intense heat on the outside of the loaf changes its starch 
into dextrin (a stiff, gummy substance which gives the crust 
its hardness) and sugar, which, being partly caramelized, gives 
it a brown color. 

Baking Temperature. The Jicat of the oven should not be 
too great, especially at first, or the outside of the loaf will 
harden too quickly and the interior will not be cooked when 
the crust is brown ; the gas also, being unable to escape, will 
sometimes push up the crust and leave large holes beneath it. 

Bread should not brown the first ten minutes, and only 
gradually after that. Opinions differ somewhat, even among 
experts, as to the oven heat for baking bread, some preferring 
a temperature of 400° F., others from 360° F. to 400° F. The 
chemist of a large milling company, who has tried different 
methods, finds the following most satisfactory : 

First heat the oven to 440° F. When the bread is ready for 
baking, cool off the oven by opening the oven door. Put in 
the bread and let it stand until it is well raised, then close the 
oven door and bake the bread with a rising heat of not more 
than 390°. This method gives a light loaf of good texture. 

The following conclusions are the result of investigations 
carried on in the Household Science Department of the Uni- 
versitv of Illinois : 



FLOUR, YEASTS, AND BREAD 1 59 

''Tt was easily seen that the baking temperature must be regulated 
according to the degree of lightness of the dough. Too hot an oven 
causes an under-raised dough to crack after crusting over, thus produc- 
ing holes in the crumb, while too cool an oven allows fairly well-risen 
dough to become over-light." 

Further proof of this statement was shown by experiment, the 
result of which shows that "bread allowed to rise to the desired degree 
of lightness before baking, and put into a hot oven, produces a better 
shaped loaf than if allowed to finish its rising in the oven. However, 
the bread which is barely doubled in bulk and allowed to rise in the oven 
reaches the same maximum volume attained by bread risen entirely out- 
side, and in addition is of much finer texture, better color, and increased 
tenderness and silkiness." — Journal of Home Economics, Vol. VT, No. i. 

It was shown that ''overheating of the dough during raising 
results in a loaf of small volume, coarse texture, dark crumb, 
and dull, unattractive crust. Chilling of bread tends to lessen 
its volume, and to produce compactness, coarseness, and tough- 
ness of the crumb. 

"Doughs which are thoroughly warmed during mixing and 
kneading are not easily chilled afterwards. The later it is in 
the process when such chilling occurs, the less the influence 
on the bread." 

Among other conclusions are the following: "Increase of 
yeast up to four or five cakes adds to the fineness of texture, 
but a greater amount produces coarseness. Increase of yeast 
causes a very gradual but constant increase in the tendency to 
crumble and in the pallor of the crust. An exceedingly large 
excess of yeast seems to cause deterioration in flavor, this 
deterioration being more in lack of flavor than in any un])leasant 
taste, provided the yeast is of good quality." 

"Length of time of rising in the oven is increased by an 
increase in amoimt of yeast. When a good (lual'ty of yeast 
is used an increase up to two cakes per loaf is to be recom- 
mended for shortening time and producing better l^read, 



t6o a course in household arts 

although it cannot be recommended from an economic stand- 
point." 

Care after Baking. If kept in a close, warm, moist atmos- 
]:>here, or covered with a cloth while hot, bread is far more 
likely to develop sourness, mold, etc., than if stored where the 
bread may cool rapidly and lose any excess of moisture. 

Good Bread: 

Bread should be thoroughly baked. This is best accom- 
plished by using a small, single pan. A desirable size is one 
8J X 3| X 3 inches. 

The loaf should be evenly raised, top well rounded, and no 
protruding crusts. 

The crust should be an even bright brown in color ; crisp, 
crackly. pliable, and smooth to the touch ; not too thick. 

The crumb, or interior, should have the appearance and 
feeling of lightness with no heavy streaks or spots anywhere : 
fine, even texture, due to the even distribution of small gas 
cavities, having thin, delicate walls ; neither doughy nor crum- 
bly, but soft, yet firm, and elastic enough to spring back after 
pressure with the finger. 

Flavor. Good bread should have a nutty flavor, entirely 
free from mustiness or sourness. Good flavor is due to the 
right amount of fermentation, to the quality and condition of 
the flour, and to the amount and character of the other ingredi- 
ents added, and also to proper baking, since in under-baked 
bread the heating has not been sufficient to kill all the bacteria. 

Some Defects in Bread: 

Heaviness may be due to the use of too much water in pro- 
portion to the flour ; to too little or too poor yeast ; to insuflicient 
kneading, rising, or baking. 



FLOUR, YEASTS, AND BREAD l6l 

Tough, leathery crust may be due to insufficiently fermented 
dough or to too cool an oven. Protruding crusts are caused 
by placing loaves too close together in the oven, so that, on 
expanding, they touch each other. 

Too soft a dough causes the loaf to be small in volume and 
too flat on the top ; the texture is apt to be coarse, and in the 
case of exceedingly soft dough the crumb is somewhat dark, 
tough, and clammy. The stiff cr the dough the more rounded 
is the top and the greater is the tendency of the loaf to crack 
open on the side ; the finer is the texture, also, and the whiter 
and drier is the crumb. 

Crumbly bread, which breaks when cut, instead of separat- 
ing, results from the use of harsh, dry flours not sufficiently 
fermented, or from over-kneading of the dough. Large, irreg- 
ular holes in the crumb, instead of the small, even pores it should 
show, occur in over-kneaded or over-raised dough ; or if found 
just under the crust, the oven was too hot, so that the crust 
formed before the carbon dioxide had finished expanding. 

Sour bread. Sourness in bread may be caused by ( i ) too 
long rising; (2) rising in too hot a place; (3) rising in too 
cool a place; (4) oven not hot enough to kill the yeast plant 
quickly. 

Bread — Short Process 

I tb. sugar i yeast cake, mixed with J c. 

1 tb. shortening lukewarm water 

li t. salt Flour to make dough stiff 

2 c. boiling water, or I c. enough to knead — about 
boiling water and i c. 6 c. 



calded milk 



The sugar and shortening are sometimes omitted. If used, 
put sugar and shortening into a large bowl or pan, and pour 



1 62 A COURSE IN HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

on them the hot hqnid. Mix yeast cake with J c. of lukewarm 
water ; when the mixture in the bowl is lukeivarm, stir in the 
yeast. Add 5 c. of sifted flour and the salt, and stir until 
smooth ; then add enough more flour, a little at a time, to make 
a dough stiff enough to knead. Turn it upon a floured board, 
scrape every particle of dough from bowl, and knead initil it is 
smooth and elastic to the touch and will not stick to board or 
hands. Return dough to bowl, cover closely, and let stand in a 
warm place (about 80° F.) until double its bulk, which will 
take between 2 and 3 hours. Turn the dough upon the board 
and knead again until no large bubbles can be seen. The touch 
should be light and as little flour as possible used during the 
second kneading. Shape dough into loaves or biscuit, and place 
in greased pans. Dough for loaves should half fill pans. Cover 
and put in a warm place. When double their bulk, which will 
take about i hour, bake in a hot oven — loaves, 50 to 60 minutes : 
biscuits, from 15 to 20 minutes, according to size. Have the 
crust brown on all sides. Remove bread from pans as soon as 
taken from the oven, and cool in such a position that the air 
can circulate freely around the loaves. If desired more tender, 
rub the crust with melted butter just before taking bread from 
the oven. 

Bread — Long Process 

If more convenient to allow bread to rise over night, use 
but \ yeast cake with the above quantities of other materials. 
The temperature of the room should not be over 70° F., the 
ordinary room temperature. The second kneading is to be done 
the following morning, and the remaining process is the same 
as directed for the "Short Process" bread. An extra \ t. of salt 
may be added if bread is allowed to rise over night. 



FLOUR, YEASTS, AM) BRI:AD 163 

Whole \Vheat Bread 

I pt. boiling water 4 yeast cake, mixed with 

I tb. butter or lard 2 tb. lukewarm water 

I t. salt I -J c. white floiir 

i c. sugar or molasses 3^ c. whole wheat tlour 

Put salt, butter, and sweetening into a bowl, and pour on 
them the boiling water ; cool until lukewarm. Mix the yeast 
cake with the 2 tb. lukewarm water and add to mixture in bowl ; 
stir in the flour, mix thoroughly, and let rise over night. In tlie 
morning, beat it well and put into pans. Let rise until double 
the bulk. Bake in a hot oven about 45 minutes. 

Whole wheat bread may be made as directed for white 
bread, using two-thirds whole wheat flour and one-third w^hitc. 

Graham bread may be made by substituting Graham for 
whole wheat flour in the above recipe. 

Nutritive Value and Digestibility. Concerning the nutri- 
tive value of bread, Hutchison, in The Principles of Food and 
Dietetics, says: "Weight for weight, but not bulk for bulk, 
bread must be regarded as one of the most nutritious of our 
ordinary foods. This is due largely»to the fact that three-fifths 
of it consist of solid nutriment and but two-fifths of water, and 
there is no animal food and but few cooked vegetable foods 
of which the same can be said. 

"Of the chemical constituents necessary for proper nutri- 
tion, bread yields to the body a large proportion of carbo- 
hydrates, a moderate amount of protein and mineral matters, 
but almost no fat. The fact that bread is usually eaten with 
butter, howTver, renders the absence of fat a matter of but 
little importance. 



164 A COURSI-: IX HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

''Yet bread cannot be regarded as a perfect food, Ijecause 
the proportion of protein to carbohydrate is too low. An ideal 
food would contain i part protein to 4.2 parts of carbohydrates, 
whereas in white bread the proportion is only i to 8^. . . . To 
the ordinary mixed feeder this does not matter, for he supple- 
ments the deficiency of protein by adding to the bread a 'pro- 
tein carrier/ such as milk, eggs, meat, or cheese. Where bread 
forms the staple article of diet, however, as it does in the diet 
of the very poor, this lack of protein must be regarded as a 
serious drawback." 

The use of skimmed milk instead of water in mixing bread 
will increase the protein about 2 per cent, with only a slight 
increase in cost. 

As compared with most meats, bread has practically no 
waste and is completely digested, though its digestibility seems 
to depend largely upon the lightness of the loaf (Farmers' 
Bulletin s8p). The result of a large number of experiments 
made to determine the comparative digestibility of different 
kinds of bread showed in all cases that the digestibility of 
standard patent flour was the highest, that of entire wheat the 
next, and that of Graham the lowest. It seems safe to say, 
therefore, that as far as is known white flour yields the most 
actual nourishment for a given amount of money. 

Dr. Sherman (Food Products, pp. 292, 293) in this connec- 
tion says in substance that, regarding the coarser and finer flours 
simply as sources of protein and energy, they are so nearly equal, 
both in digestible nutrients and cost, that they are equivalent 
and interchangeable, yet in their mineral constituents and in 
their effect upon the digestive tract they are quite diff'erent. 
The coarser flours stimulate intestinal action more than do the 
finer flour products, an effect which is desirable in some persons, 
undesirable in others. This property of the whole wheat prod- 



FLOUR, YEASTS, AND BREAD IO5 

nets is probably due in part to mechanical irritation and in part 
also to the laxative effects of the oil of the germ and the ph} tin 
(one of the phosphorous compounds), which is especially 
abundant in bran, these two substances being largely removed 
in the preparation of fine white flour. 

The ash constituents of the grains are mainly in the germs 
and outer layers, and the wheat-grain contains three to five 
times as much of the total ash as the fine flour made from it. 
Thus, three-fourths of the ash constituents of wheat are lost 
to man in the process of manufacturing wheat into fine flour. 

While no adequate experiments to test this point have been 
made with man, the value of the ash constituents of the bran 
for growing rats has been shown conclusively. Rodents fed on 
whole wheat bread grew much better than those fed on white 
bread, and were better nourished, though all appeared equally 
well nourished at the beginning of the experiment. 

He continues : " In view of recent studies, the probable 
effect upon the ' vitamine' content of rejecting all but the interior 
portion of the grain naturally suggests itself as a subject worthy 
of consideration. ... It is also true that many American family 
dietaries show little margin of safety with regard to iron, phos- 
phorus, and calcium ; it is only reasonable, therefore, that we 
should wish to include in the products used for human food 
as much as is practicable of those parts of the grain which are 
rich in these elements." 

Left-over Bread 

Not a scrap of bread need be wasted. Pieces of suitable size 
may be used for toast or croutons ; small or irregular pieces for 
puddings of various kinds, for griddle cakes, or for stuffing 
meat, fish, etc. ; or they may be dried and rolled for breading 
croquettes, chops, etc. 



1 66 



A COURSK IX TIOUSEUOr.D ARTS 



SCALLOPED DISHES 

The crumbs for scalloped dishes are prepared from the 
inside of a loaf of bread a day or more old. Grate the bread, 
or, if dry enough, crumb by rubbing two pieces together. 
Cracker crumbs may also be used, but will need more liquid 
to moisten them. Half bread and half cracker crumbs may be 
used. 

Cold meats, or hsh, and oysters, some vegetables, or some 
fruits may be used in scalloped dishes. 

General rule for preparing scalloped dishes: 
Put one- fourth of the crumbs on the bottom of a buttered 
baking dish, then one-half of the material to be "scalloped." 
half the seasonings and liquid ; next, another fourth of the 
crumbs, another layer of material, seasoning, and liquid. Cover 
the top with the remaining half of the crumbs. 

Scalloped Apples 

3 c. apples, thinly sliced ^ c. sugar 
or chopped -g t. nutmeg 

2 c. crumbs ^ t. cinnamon 

4 tb. butter ^ t. salt 

^ c. boiling water 

Cut apples in quarters ; pare and core them. Slice or chop 
the apple. ( Stewed apples may be used. ) If apples are not tart, 
add juice of ^ lemon to the water. The yellow rind of ^ lemon, 
grated, may be used if the flavor is liked. Melt the butter and 
stir in the crumbs. Put one-fourth of them in the bottom of a 
buttered pudding dish ; add half the apples ; mix sugar, spice^, 
salt, and lemon rind (if used), and sprinkle half of it over the 
apples and add half the water ; then a layer of crumbs, apples. 



FLOUR, VKASTS, AND BREAD l()J 

sweetening, and water. Use remaining half cup of crumbs for 
the top, sprinkhng them evenly and lightly, without pressing. 
Cover and bake on bottom of oven 30 or 45 minutes, or until 
apples are soft. Remove cover and place on the grate to brown. 
Serve hot, with milk or cream, or pudding sauce. Peaches or 
berries, fresh or cooked, may be used instead of apples. If 
cooked fruit is used, cook only until crumbs are browned. 

Nutmeg Sauce 

1 tb. cornstarch or i c. boiling water 

2 tb. flour ^ t. nutmeg 
|- c. sugar I tb. butter 

Mix cornstarch and sugar; add water gradually, stirring 
constantly. Boil 5 minutes, remove from hre, add butter and 
nutmeg. 

Scalloped Tomatoes 

2 c. tomatoes \ ssp. pepper 

i^ t. salt i^ c. crumbs 

3 tb. butter 

Cook tomatoes 10 minutes with salt and pepper. Butter 
crumbs and arrange as for scalloped apple. Cook, covered, 
for 20 minutes ; uncover, and brown on grate or under gas in 
broiling oven. If raw tomatoes are used, bake i hour, covered 
for 30 minutes. If desired, sugar may be added. 

Scalloped Onions 

Arrange the boiled onions between the layers of crumbs, 
using thin white sauce to moisten them. Cook 20 minutes 
covered. Uncover and brown. 



l68 A COIKSK IX HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

Dried Bread Crumbs 

Dry pieces of stale bread in a warm oven until crisp, but 
not brown. Crush fine with a rolling pin ; sift and when quite 
cold store in glass jars, to use in covering croquettes, etc., for 
frying. Tie double cheesecloth over the top of jars, instead 
of the usual covers, as the crumbs are less likely to acquire a 
stale taste and odor. 

Crusts may be broken in small pieces and heated in an oven 
until brown all through, and used as a breakfast cereal or for 
pudding. 

Browned Crust Pudding 

2 c. browned bread crusts J t. cinnamon 

^ c. sugar ^ c. raisins, seeded 

J t. salt 2 c. hot milk 

Put the browned crusts with the sugar, salt, cinnamon, and 
raisins in a pudding dish. Mix well, pour on milk, and let stand 
lo minutes; bake until milk is absorbed. A beaten egg may be 
mixed with sugar, salt, and cinnamon, and the milk added 
slowly before pouring over the crumbs. Use 3 c. of milk if egg 
is added. One-half cup of molasses may be used instead of 
sugar. Serve with hard sauce. 

Hard Sauce 

I c. butter 30 drops vanilla or 

I c. powdered sugar ^ t. nutmeg 

Rub the butter in a bowl until creamy ; add the sugar grad- 
ually, then the vanilla if used. The nutmeg may be grated over 
the top. Put in a cold place to harden. Serve with hot pudding. 



CHAPTER XII 
Eggs and Meat 

EGGS 

The eggs of many birds, both wild and domestic, including 
ducks, geese, etc., are used for food, as well as turtle eggs and 
the eggs of many kinds of fish (in the form of spawn or roe). 
The eggs of the domestic hen, however, are most commonly 
used. 

If an Qgg is broken, it will be found to consist of the shell, 
the .white, the yolk, and membranes. The most conspicuous 
membrane is the one which lines the shell ; a thin membrane 
also incloses the yolk, which is attached to the white of the 
tgg by two white cords, which often form small lumps when 
the Ggg is cooked. The white of an egg consists of a thick, 
central portion, with the thin, watery portion surrounding it. 
An attempt to lift a spoonful of the thick part of the white will 
show that it is held together firmly ; but if beaten thoroughly, 
a spoonful may be easily separated. 

It has been found that the white of the egg consists of 
millions of tiny cells filled with a clear, sticky, and nearly color- 
less liquid, known as albumin. The walls of these cells consist 
of exceedingly delicate membranes, which are ruptured or 
broken when the egg is beaten, allowing the contents to escape. 

The shell of the egg is porous, and consists almost entirely 
of carbonate of lime. 

An egg of average size weighs a little less than two ounces. 
Owing to the porous nature of the shell, the water in the egg 

169 



I/O A COL'KSK IX HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

evaporates, and air enters to take its place ; therefore the longer 
the egg" is kept, the lighter it becomes. 

Tests for freshness: ( i ) A fresh tgg will sink at once w hen 
placed in water, or better, in a solution of one part salt to ten 
l)arts water. The older the egg, the nearer the surface it will 
float. 

(2) The shell of a fresh ^gg is rough and dull, while that 
of a stale one is smooth and glossy. 

(3) Shake the tgg while holding it close to the ear. If 
fresh, no sound will be heard. 

(4) A fresh ^gg, if held between a bright light and the 
eye, will show a clear, rosy tint throughout, with no dark spots. 
A stale Qgg will look cloudy, with dark spots. Eggs are often 
thus tested in a dark room with a candle, therefore this method 
is called "candling." 

Eggs grow steadily poorer the longer they are kept, even 
if they are not decidedly spoiled. The spoiling of eggs is due 
chiefly to the growth within them of bacteria, which may enter 
the shell either from the place where the egg has been lying, 
or by means of the air which goes in through the porous shell 
as the water evaporates. ]\rolds on the surface of the shells 
sometimes push through and sprout, and thus cause the eggs 
to spoil. 

Note. — Under normal conditions the shell is hacterium-proof. 
Moisture lessens its impervious character, however, and when combined 
with dirt and filth, makes it possible for micro-organisms to enter and 
liring about decay. Increased temperature added to this hastens the 
decomposition. — Storrs Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin Xo. 7$. 

Eggs are preserved or kept from spoiling for periods vary- 
ing from a few months to about a year, many methods being 
used with varying degrees of success. A common method is that 
of excluding the air. This is done by packing the eggs in bran. 



EGGS AND MEAT lyi 

oats, etc. ; by coating the surface with vasehne or other sub- 
stances ; or by covering them with Hme water, with or without 
salt. Various other materials are also used for the purpose, 
the most satisfactory being a solution of silicate of soda, 
commonly called "water glass." (See Part II, Preservation of 
Food.) 

Eggs are also preserved by "cold storage," at a temperature 
just above the freezing point. Eggs are sometimes removed 
I'rom the shell, stored in large cans, and frozen. It is said that 
by this method they can be kept any desired length of time; 
but if not used soon after thawing, they will spoil quickly. 
Eggs preserved in any way are inferior to fresh eggs. Pre- 
served eggs, even if they are not spoiled, have a flavor often 
so unpleasant that they are unfit for food. 

Since in all cases the ^gg is designed to furnish the sole 
source of nutriment for the grow'th of the young bird or other 
animal to be developed within it, it is evident that the tgg must 
contain all the elements required for the purpose. It must con- 
tain protein, mineral matter, and water, for these are absolutely 
necessary for the making of muscle, blood, bone, etc. It needs 
fat, for that is the most compact form in which heat-giving 
material can be stored. Carbohydrates the egg need not con- 
tain, for the chief use of carbohydrates is to serve as a source 
of muscular energy, and very little muscular movement is 
possible within the narrow limits of the eggshell ; protein can 
furnish heat and energy when required. As a matter of fact, 
the Qgg consists practically of these substances : protein, water, 
fat, and mineral matter; the average composition of the edible 
portion of hens' eggs being as follows : 



172 A COURSE IN HOUSEHOLD ARTS 











Whole egg 


White 


YoU 


Water 








73-7 


86.2 , 


49-5 


Protein 








14.8 


130 


16.1 


Fat 








10.5 


0.2 


33-3 


Mineral 


matter 


(or 


ash) 


I. 


0.6 


I.I 


Carbohydrates 
















1 00.0 1 00.0 1 00.0 

(U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Chart 2. Prepared by C. F. 
Langworthy.) 

The amotint of carbohydrate present is so small that the 
figures are not usually given. 

The yolk and white of egg differ greatly in composition, 
as may be seen by comparison. The egg white is more than 
eight-tenths water, the remaining portion being principally 
protein (albumin), with a little mineral matter, etc. The yolk 
is about half water, one-third fat, and nearly one-sixth protein, 
with almost twice as much mineral matter as the white. 

The nutritive materials of eggs being principally protein 
and fat, they resemble in this respect such animal foods as 
milk, cheese, and meat. Their lack of carbohydrates explains 
the combination of eggs with food materials containing them, 
as flour, sugar, etc. When eggs, meat, fisli, cheese, or other 
similar foods rich in protein are eaten, bread, butter, potatoes, 
rice, etc., are usually served at the same time. The wisdom of 
this combination has been proved by long, practical experience 
as well as by modern science. 

The protein material in eggs is a mixture of proteins. For 
convenience they may be considered as a single substance, 
albumin (from a Latin word, aJbus, white). 

The white of eggs contains albumin in the purest form in 
which it occurs in nature, and so egg white is taken as a type 
of albuminous food. The yolk also contains albumin. Simple 



EGGS AND MEAT 1 73 

experiments will serve to show some of the characteristics of 
albumin and the manner in which it is afifected by heat, etc. 

Experiments with albumin: 

1. Break an egg carefully and put white and yolk in separate dishes. 
Use scissors to divide the white ; put one teaspoonful of egg white into 
a small bowl with ten teaspoonfuls of water and beat until thoroughly 
mixed. Strain through fine cloth or filter paper into a glass. 

2. Put one-half the strained liquid into a small saucepan and heat 
slowly until a white froth separates and rises to the top. Remove froth 
and examine. 

Note. — This froth is albumin which was dissolved in the cold water 
and is now coagulated by the heat. (Coagulate means to congeal or to 
thicken ; to change from a fluid to a solid mass of moderate consistence ; 
to clot.) 

3. Mix one teaspoonful of egg yolk with ten teaspoonfuls of cold 
water and mix thoroughly. Heat in a small saucepan until the egg yolk 
separates from the water in curd-like masses. 

4. Half-fill a small saucepan with water; heat until water boils. 
Remove from heat and put into it a small portion of egg white. Let 
stand 5 minutes, then take egg white from the water and reserve. 

5. Half-fill a small saucepan with water ; heat until it boils. Put 
into it a portion of egg white equal in quantity to that used in Experi- 
ment 4. Boil 2 minutes, remove, and compare with egg in preceding 
experiment. 

6. Mix a small portion of egg white and egg yolk; put the mixture 
into a small saucepan or frying pan, and cook directly over heat 2 or 
3 minutes. Remove egg and compare with that in tlie two preceding 
experiments. 

From these experiments we learn : 

Albumin is soluble in cold water. 

Heat coagulates albumin, making it insoluble in water either 
hot or cold. 

Albumin cooked in water considerably below boiling tem- 
perature is delicately coagulated, becoming tender and jelly-like. 

Albumin cooked at boiling temperature becomes hard and 
dense. 



174 A COURSE IX HorsEiior.n arts 

Intense heat shrinks albumin and makes it very hard and 
dry. Continued heating at high temperature renders albumin 
tough and horny. 

XoTE. — By the use of a chemical thermometer more definite data 
may be obtained, as follows : 

Fill a test tube one-third full with raw egg white and immerse in a 
beaker of cold water. Suspend thermometer in the egg white and heat 
slowly to 212° F. or ioo° C. Continue heating for 3 to 5 minutes. 
Observe carefully changes in the egg white and note temperature at 
which they occur. 

XoTE. — Careful experiments have shown that albumin begins to 
coagulate at a temperature of 134° F. and becomes jelly-like at 160° F. 
When cooked at a temperature between 160° and 185° F., the albumin 
is tender and readily digestible. When prepared for invalids or others 
with weak digestion, eggs should be cooked by such methods as will not 
render the albumin tough. Soft-cooked eggs, poached and steamed eggs, 
and creamy eggs and custards are suitable. 

The presence of protein may be shown as follows : Put into a glass 
beaker or a test tube the second half of the solution of egg white. 
Add a few drops of strong nitric acid, being careful to avoid touching 
the flesh, clothing, furniture, etc., with the acid, which is strongly corro- 
sive. A white precipitate forms, which, when the liquid is heated to 
boiling, will turn yellow. Cool and add ammonia, which will change the 
yellow color to orange. These changes in color indicate the presence of 
a protein substance. Dilute with plenty of Vv^ater before throwing mix- 
ture into the sink. 

Eggs should be kept in a cool, dry place. The shells should 
be washed before the eggs are used. 

When using several eggs, break each one separately into 
a cup. In this way a poor egg may be detected. 

To keep an egg from drying after it is removed from the 
shell, mix with it a teaspoonful of water. Cover, and keep in 
a cool place. Whole yolks may be covered with cold water. 

Eggs should be served as soon as cooked. 



EGGS AND MEAT 1/5 

Eggnog 

I egg I c. milk 

I tb. sugar A few grains of salt 

Grating of nutmeg 

Scald the milk or use cold milk. Beat the egg thoroughly, 
add sugar and salt ; add milk and beat again. Strain and add 
nutmeg. The egg may be separated, if preferred, and the 
beaten white added at the last. Water is sometimes used instead 
of milk, and i tb. of cream added. The egg white only may 
be used with the milk, making albuminized inillc. Less milk 
may be used, if desired. 

Egg Lemonade 

1 egg 2 tb. lemon juice 

2 tb. sugar i c. water 

Beat the egg thoroughly and add the sugar and lemon juice ; 
add the water slowly, stirring until smooth and well mixed. 
Strain and serve ; a little grated nutmeg may be added, if liked. 

Soft Cooked Eggs No. i 

In general, allow i pt. of water for 2 eggs, and an extra 
cupful for each additional egg. Water should cover the eggs. 
If eggs are very cold, pour warm water over them before the 
boiling water, to prevent shells from breaking. Place the eggs 
in the water with a spoon, and cover pan. Remove at once from 
the fire and let stand 6 to 8 minutes, according to size of eggs 
or their temperature when put into the boiling water. Serve 
in heated cups. 



176 A C0URS1-: IX HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

Soft Cooked Eggs No. 2 

Put boiling water into the upper and lower parts of a double 
boiler. Place upper boiler over the lower one. Put eggs into 
the upper boiler, cover, and let stand 5 to 6 minutes. 

Soft Cooked Eggs No. 3 

Put eggs into a saucepan and cover with cold water. Place 
over heat and cook until fine bubbles appear all through the 
water. Remove from water and serve. 

Hard Cooked Eggs 

Put eggs into a saucepan, with enough boiling water to 
cover them ; place saucepan where the water will keep very hot, 
but not boil, for 30 to 45 minutes. 

When taken from the hot water, if the eggs are put into 
cold water for a few minutes the shells can be taken ofT more 
readily. 

Poached Eggs 

Have ready a slice of hot, buttered toast for each egg. Put 
into a shallow pan sufficient boiling, salted water to cover the 
eggs, using i t. of salt to each pint of water. Break each egg 
separately into a saucer and slip egg carefully into the water. 
Place pan where the water will be kept hot, but will not boil. 
Cook 6 to 8 minutes, or until a film forms over the yolk and 
the white is firm. If water should not cover the eggs, use a 
spoon to pour it very gently over the yolks. Use a griddle-cake 
turner or a skimmer to remove the cooked eggs ; trim off rough 
edges and place each egg on toast. Sprinkle salt and i)epper 
over each egg and serve immediately. 

Egg poachers or buttered muffin rings are often used to 
keep the eggs in shape. 



EGGS AND MEAT 1/7 

Eggs may be poached In milk or thin cream, which is then 
poured over the toast. 

Egg Vermicelli or Goldenrod Eggs 

3 hard-cooked eggs i ssp. pepper 

-| t. salt 4 o^ 5 slices of toast 

Make i c. thin white sauce, according to directions. vSepa- 
rate yolks from whites of cooked eggs. Chop whites fine, add 
to the white sauce, and pour over the toast arranged on a hot 
platter. Press the yolks through a coarse strainer over the 
white sauce. Cover, place in a moderate oven 5 minutes, and 
serve hot. Hot cooked rice or macaroni may be used instead 
of toast. The dish may Be garnished with "toast points,'' 
made by cutting slices of toast into pieces about i^ inches square, 
and dividing each square diagonally. 

Baked or Steamed Custard 

2 c. milk ^ c. sugar 

2 eggs or 3 egg yolks | t. salt 

Spk. nutmeg 

Scald milk. Beat egg until whites and yolks are thoroughly 
mixed ; add sugar, salt, and nutmeg, and mix well. Add the 
scalded milk slowly, stirring all the time. Strain the mixture 
•into a buttered pudding dish or into cups. Place dish or cups 
in a pan of hot water. Bake in a moderate oven until a knife 
put into center will not look milky when taken out. If cooked 
too long, the custard will separate or "whey." Custard is 
steamed by placing dish or cups containing it in a steamer 
over a saucepan of boiling water. Cover, and cook until custard 
is firm in the center. To test, pierce the custard with the point 
of a knife. If "done," no milky appearance will be seen — the 
"knife comes out clean." 



1/8 A COURSi: IX HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

Steamed Egg 

Separate white and yolk of the egg. Beat white to a stiff 
froth and pat into a buttered cup. Put the yolk (whole) into 
the center. Place cup in a steamer, or in a saucepan contain- 
ing enough boiling water to reach half-way to the top of cu]). 
Cover, remove saucepan from fire, and let stand 5 to 10 minutes. 
Serve at once; season to taste. If preferred, the yolk may be 
beaten and mixed lightly with the beaten white before cooking. 

Creamy Eggs 

4 eggs I tb. butter 
I c. milk i t. salt 

Pepper to taste 

Scald the milk ; beat eggs until thoroughly mixed, but not 
frothv ; add seasonino-. Pour the milk on slowlv, and when 
well mixed cook in the top of double boiler, stirring until 
mixture becomes thick and creamy. Add butter and pour over 
slices of toast. Serve hot. The butter may be omitted. 

Scrambled Eggs 

5 ^?gs ^ t. salt 

^ c. milk i ssp. pepper 

2 tb. butter 

Beat eggs slightly, and add salt, pepper, and milk. Melt 
the butter in a frying pan, pour in the egg mixture, and cook 
slowly, continually scraping from bottom of pan. Lift pan 
from the fire occasionally, if heat is too great. When creamy, 
turn upon a hot dish and serve at once. Fine-chopped cooked 
ham may be added, using i tb. for each tgg. If ham is used, 
omit salt and season to taste. 



EGGS AND .MEAT 179 

MEAT 

Meat includes the flesh of all animals used for food. 
Commonly, however, the term meat is applied to the muscular 
tissue, or lean, with the fat, etc., of three classes of animals, 
which supply (i) beef, veal, mutton, lamb, and pork : (2 ) poul- 
try, as chickens, turkeys, geese, ducks, etc.; (3) game, includ- 
ing wild fowl and other wild animals, as partridges, grouse, 
quail, rabbits, deer, etc. 

Structure. ^Nleat in general consists of the muscular tissue 
(muscles), or lean, with varying quantities of fat, bone, connec- 
tive tissue, as gristle, etc. 

Lean meat or muscular tissue consists of bundles of fibers 
which can be divided into smaller and smaller bundles until 
finally the individual muscle fibers are reached. These are 
elongated cells, which when viewed under a microscope are 
seen to have the form of tubes. 

These fibers, or tubes, are tender in young animals and in 
those parts of older animals which are used but little, as the 
back, for example : while in old animals and in the muscles of 
an}' animal which have been much exercised, as the neck and 
legs, the muscle fibers become thickened and tough. 

The separate bundles or muscles, the ends of which may 
be seen when a piece of raw meat is cut ''across the grain," 
are made up of hundreds of muscle tubes. These are held 
together in bundles by means of a thin, transparent membrane 
called ''connective tissue," which can be seen as delicate, shiny 
membrane when a piece of raw meat is pulled or stretched 
apart. The more of this connective tissue there is and the 
thicker it is, the tougher is the meat. Connective tissue can, 
however, be softened by heat and moisture, which change it 
into gelatin. Meat which has been boiled a long time can be 



l80 A COURSE IN HOUSEHOLD ARTS. 

readily separated into stringy, thread-like fibers, because the 
gelatin-yielding connective tissue has been dissolved l)y the 
action of the boiling water. Connective tissue is also soluble 
in the acid of vinegar, and therefore soaking tough meat in 
vinegar will make it more tender. 

Each muscle tube or fiber consists of a wall or outer cover- 
ing, or "sheath," of delicate elastic membrane, with its contents, 
the cell substance. Cell substance consists mainly of a jellv- 
like, albuminous material (myosin), which forms the chief 
protein of meat ; the myosin is combined with water having 
dissolved in it the mineral matter and the substances which 
give flavor and color to the meat. This albuminous liquid, 
together with that between and around the fibers and the 
bundles of fibers, constitutes the "juice" of meat, and conse- 
quently there is a decided difiference between meat which is 
juicy and that which is merely watery. Juicy meat more nearly 
retains its substance and shape when cooked, owing to the 
coagulation of the albuminous material present : while watery 
meat, such as veal, or other immature or very lean meat, shrinks 
greatly, owing to the loss of water. 

The walls of the muscle tubes in the fiesh of young and 
well-fed animals are thin and delicate, and the connective tissue 
is small in amount. As animals grow older and are made to 
work, especially if they are poorly fed, the walls of the muscle 
tubes become thick and hard and the connective tissue increases 
in amount. The flesh becomes coarse-grained and darker in 
color, and the bones hard and white. The fat also may become 
less. 

The fiesh of animals recently killed is soft, tender, and 
juicy, but soon becomes hard and tough; if kept in the cooler 
for a certain period to "age" or ''ripen" — from a few days to 
a week or loncfer, accordins: to the circumstances — other 



EGGS AND .Ml-: AT 151 

changes take place by which acids are formed within the meat 
which soften the connective tissue and improve the firmness, 
tenderness, and flavor of meat, provided it is sufficiently fat. 
Very lean meat deteriorates rapidly after a few days in the 
chill room. 

^leat which has been frozen sometimes develops a ''flabby" 
condition after thawing, due to the separation of water from 
the tissues of the meat. This renders it tough and detracts 
greatly from its flavor. 

Fat. All meat, however lean it may appear, contains more 
or less fat. Besides that which is visible, there is always a 
certain proportion of ''invisible fat" stored in and around the 
muscle filers, in particles too small to be distinguished from 
the lean which surrounds it. In the flesh of some animals, as 
in rabbits and veal and in the breast of chicken, there is little 
or no visible fat. In very fat beef and mutton cuts, in ducks 
and geese, and especially in pork, the proportion of fat is large, 
being sometimes one-fourth the entire weight of the beef; 
while pork may be fully nine-tenths fat. 

The amount of fat in different kinds and cuts of meat varies 
greatly : for example, the shank of beef may contain only about 
8 per cent and pork chops about 32 per cent, while the highest 
priced cuts, loins and ribs of beef, contain 20 to 25 per cent. 

]\Ieat contains large amounts of icater, varying from about 
one-half to more than three-quarters its entire weight. The 
greater the amount of fat, the smaller the amount of water ; 
and the younger the animal, the more water its flesh contains. 

Flavor. The flavor of meat is due mainly to nitrogenous 
substances called extractives, because they can be readily 
"extracted" or drawn out by soaking meat in cold water; 
the variety in the flavor of meats is due to the differences in the 
kind and amount of extractives present. Flavor is closely asso- 



l82 A COURSE IX HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

ciated with the juiciness of meat, and develops with the growth 
of the animal. The flesh of older and also of well-fed animals, 
therefore, is in general richer in flavor than that of young or 
ill-fed animals, while an intermingling of fat with the flesh 
gives a distinctive flavor and richness to meat when cooked. 
With the exception of fish, the flesh of animals which feed upon 
fish or flesh only has a strong, disagreeable flavor. The ex- 
tractives, or the flavor they give, are supposed by many to be 
best in the most expensive cuts of meat ; in reality, investiga- 
tion would seem to indicate that less choice portions are often 
of better flavor than tender cuts, but their toughness prevents 
appreciation of their good flavor. 

Food Value of Meat: * 

The value of meat as food lies chiefly in the protein or 
nitrogenous compounds, and second, in the fat ; while the 
mineral matter of meat includes substances, particularly the 
phosphorus compounds, which are of especial importance to 
the body. 

Fat is a valuable constituent of food, being especially 
important as a source of energy. It is the most concentrated 
form in which the fuel ingredients of food are found. The fats 
of animal foods could be so supplied that, together with animal 
protein, all the needs of the body could be met. An excessive 
amount of fat tends to render digestion more difficult, appar- 
ently by forming a waterproof coating around the fibers, which 
prevents the gastric juice from acting on them readily; while 
the absence of fat causes meat to shrink and become dry, hard, 
and flavorless when cooked. 

Note.— Not a scrap of fat should be wasted. Both fat and bone 
are weighed with the meat when purchased, and charged for at the 
same rate per pound ; therefore the buyer should request that the bones 
and "trimmings" cut from the meat after weighing should be delivered 



EGGS AND MEAT 1 83 

with the meat, instead of being kept by the butcher, to be sold liy him 
later. What is not used at the table should be utilized in some way, as 
in making gravies, in drippings, or for other purposes in which it will 
serve as well or better than butter. The fat unfit for food can be made 
into soap. 

Bones from most meats can l)e used in soup-making, and 
coarse ends of porterhouse steaks or chops can be put through 
the meat grinder for Hamburg steak, or meat balls, etc., or 
used in various other ways. 

The extractives of meat have little or no value in them- 
selves as food, being similar in their nature to the thehi and 
caffcin of tea and cofifee, which stimulate, but can neither build 
tissue nor yield energy. Meat extractives are of value, how- 
ever, in other ways, as without them meat would be tasteless 
and insipid. Their great importance Hes chiefly in the fact that 
they cause "the secretion of digestive juices at the proper time, 
in the right amount, and of the right chemical character. The 
digestive tract may be Hkened to a piece of machinery which 
is beautifully built and adjusted, and is ready to run and turn 
out its product as soon as the lever is moved which sets it in 
motion. The flavoring bodies of food, and especially those 
contained in meat, can be likened to the lever which sets the 
machinery in motion. Excitants to normal digestion are sup- 
plied by other foods as well ; but meats, so physiologists believe, 
are especially important for the purpose. It is this quality of 
exciting to digestion which justifies the taking of soup at the 
beginning of a meal, and the giving of broths, meat extracts, 
etc., to invalids and weak persons. These foods liave little 
nutritive value in themselves, but they are great aids to the 
digestion of other foods." — Farmers' Bulletin jp/. 

With meat may be included various organs which are used 
as food; for example, the heart, tlie liver, kidneys, stomach, 
tongue, etc. These organs are of rather close, solid texture. 
and are therefore considered somewhat difficult of digestion. 



184 A COURSE IX HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

Composition. The composition of meat varies greatly, 

according to the cut, the amount of fat, etc. The following 

table gives the average composition of a piece of lean beef 

without visible fat : • 

Per cent 

Protein 18.36 

Gelatin 1.64 

Extractives 1.90 
Fat .90 

jMineral matter 1.30 

Water 75-90 



100.00 



MARKETING 1 

Quality in Meat. Meat should be uniform in color and 
should have little or no odor ; the flesh should be firm, and when 
touched should scarcely moisten the fingers ; on keeping, it 
should become dry rather than wet. 

Quality in beef refers particularly to the grain and firmness 
of the lean, to the " niarhling" or the distribution of fat through 
the lean, and to the proportion of bone and other waste in the 
cut. 

The grain of meat refers to its fineness of texture. The cut 
surface should be glossy, smooth, or "velvety" in appearance 
and touch, as opposed to stringiness or coarseness. 

Firmness in this connection means ''substance" or ''body," 
as distinguished from a soft, gluey, or "washy" consistency 
of the flesh, and is an indication of tenderness, juiciness, and 
maturity. On the other hand, firmness due to a dry, stringy 
condition of the flesh is objectionable. 

Marbling is of special importance in ribs and loins of the 
higher grades of beef, but is not usually evident in other cuts 

^Compiled niaiiilv from University of Ulinois Agricultural Experiment Station lUiUetin 
No. 147. 



EGGS AND MEAT 1 85 

except the best quality of rounds and chucks. The importance 
of marbhng consists mainly in its influence on tenderness. 
When fat is deposited in the connective tissue cells through- 
out the lean, the elasticity of the connective tissues is diminished, 
and the meat is improved in tenderness and juiciness. 

Tenderness. While no infallible rule for indications of 
tenderness can be given, careful observation of certain points 
will be of assistance. Tender meat is, as a rule, fine-grained 
and smooth in texture, showing little connective tissue. Such 
meat is pliable, and the flesh may be penetrated with the finger 
or easily cut with a knife ; yet it is firm, rather than soft and 
flabby. With some exceptions, the fatness of meat and the 
degree of marbling are indications of tenderness ; light-colored 
flesh usually shows that the cut is from a young animal, and 
should consequently be tender. Cutting meat across, instead 
of zvith the grain makes much difiference in its apparent coarse- 
ness of fiber, and this must be considered in judging of tender- 
ness, as even the tenderloin looks stringy when cut lengthwise. 
The texture and color of the bone is another indication of 
tenderness. Bones of a comparatively soft, spongy texture and 
of a reddish color indicate that the cut is from a young animal, 
while hard, dense, white bones are characteristic of old animals. 

The proportion of bone directly affects the amount of edible 
meat in a cut. 

Color is of great importance in grading beef cuts, as it is 
an indication of the age and quality. 

Good beef, when first cut, is a deep bluish red, which usually 
turns bright red when exposed to the air a few minutes, 
although the bluish tinge sometimes remains for a longer 
period. 

Dark-colored flesh, in general, is characteristic of older 
animals, though exposure to a warm atmosphere w^ill produce 



1 86 A COURSE IN HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

a dark color in the surface of any grade. A very pale or pinkish 
tinge, on the other hand, usually indicates immaturity. 

The fat of all animals should be as white as possible, free 
from blood clots or spots, and of a firm, clear consistency. 
That of the highest grade beef is clear white, and varies in 
lower grades from white to yellow, though the outer fat of 
choice beef cuts may be quite yellow. 

Beef from animals under fifteen to eighteen months old is 
not generally mature enough to be classed as ''prime" or first 
grade, as the flesh is lacking in firmness or ''substance" and 
"marbling," and has a high percentage of water; while that 
from animals three or four years old is usually too coarse in 
bone or grain of meat, though there are, of course, individual 
exceptions. 

In short, besides being sound and of proper color, etc., a 
tempting appearance in meat requires a good shape — full, 
thick, and plump, according to the cut — even, smoothly cut 
surfaces, firm condition, and absence of all indications of 
coarseness in the flesh and bone — for example, careful atten- 
tion to the size and shape of the "eye" or leanin a rib roast; 
the amount, character, and color of the bone, as well as the 
meat, in a pork chop ; the smoothness, thinness, and quality of 
rind on a strip of breakfast bacon. An exception to the rule 
is the unattractive appearance of certain kinds of cured and 
ripened meats, such as Virginia hams, etc., the excellent flavor 
of which justifies their extremely high price. 

Beef Cuts 

The methods of cutting up animals for meat vary in difi'erent 
localities. The line of division between the cuts varies slightly, 
according to the usage of the local markets. The names of the 
same cuts vary also in different parts of the country. 



EGGS AND MEAT 1 87 

The first method given here is that followed in the whole- 
sale markets of the Union Stock Yards, Chicago, the largest 
establishments of the kind in the world ; and since most of the 
American wholesale markets are supplied from these centers, 
the general divisions as given, according to the Illinois Experi- 
ment Station Bulletin Xo. 147, may be regarded as standard. 

Note. — Since these lessons were prepared originally for the Boston 
Public Schools of Cookery, the diagram reprinted from the Boston 
Cook Book of Mrs. Lincoln is retained to show some of the points of 
difference in methods of cutting and in the names given to the sub- 
divisions. 

The body or "carcass" of beef is divided into halves or 
"sides/' Sides are divided into quarters, "fores," and '^ hinds.'' 
Sides are ''quartered" between the twelfth and thirteenth ribs, 
except for export and for the Boston ^Market, for which they 
are cut between the tenth and eleventh ribs. It is customary 
to number the ribs from the neck backward. Beef carcasses 
contain thirteen pairs of ribs. 

Quarters are divided into seven so-called "straight" cuts, 
the "straight" cuts handled in Chicago wholesale markets 
being loins, ribs, rounds, chucks, plates, flanks, and shanks. 
Four secondary cuts are also made : the hind-shank, rump, 
clod, and neck. 

The loin is separated from the rump at the hip joint. The 
flank is cut from about the middle of the thirteenth rib to the 
opposite lower corner of the loin. 

The shank is sawed off just below the second knuckle 
(shoulder joint). 

The plate is cut oft' on a line extending from about the 
middle of the twelfth rib through the point at which the shank 
is removed. 

The rib and ehuck are separated between the fifth and sixth 
ribs. 



I«« 



A COURSE IN HOUSEHOLD ARTS 




Fig. I. Beef Cuts — Chicago Method 

Courtesy of University of Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station 
{See explanatio7i on opposite page) 



EGGS AND MEAT 



189 



Fig. I. Beef Cuts — Chicago Method 

{Illustratioii on opposite page) 



I. Hind Qiakikr 
(1,2,3,4,5.6,9) \ 



II. FOKE QUAKIKK 

(7,8,10,11,12) 



Full round 
(1.2,3) 



Loin 

(4,5,(5) 

Flank (9) 

7. Rib 

8. Chuck 

10, 11. Plate 
12. Shank 



1. Hind shank 

2. Round (rump and shank off) 

3. Rump 

4. 5. Loin end 

6. Pinbone loin 

5. 6. Flatbone loin 
13. Suet 



a. Aitch-bone 

b. Rump bone 



10. Navel 

11. Brisket 



e. Chine-bones 

f. " P.uttons " ^ 

g. " Skirt " (diaphragm) 
h. Breastbone 



' Button-like knobs on the ends of the chine-bones. Their condition is an indication o! 
quality, being white, soft, and cartilaginous in choice young animals. 




Fig. 2. Diagram of Ox — Boston Method 

Reprinted, by Mrs. Lincoln's permission, from the Boston Cook Book 



Tip of sirloin 
Middle of sirloin 
First cut of sirloin 
Back of rump 
Middle of rump 
Face of rump 
Aitch-bone 
Bottom of round 



8^. Top of round . c. 

9. Vein d. 

10. Poorer part of round 16. 

11. Poorer part of vein 17. 

12. Hind shin 18. 

13. Boneless flank 

14. Thick flank with bone 19. 

15. First cut of ribs 



Chuck ribs 
Neck 

First cut of rattle-rand 
Second cut of rattle-rand 
Brisket {a, the navel 
end ; b, the butt end) 
Fore shin 



IQO A C0URS1-: IX HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

Loin. The loin is the highest priced cut of the carcass, 
because of the tenderness and quahty of the lean. 

Several different cuts of the loin are used extensively as 
wholesale cuts, particularly in loins below the first grade. The 
regular or "pinbone" short loin is the portion between the 
thirteenth rib and hip bone (pinbone) inclusive, and includes 
about half of the full loin. It contains porterhouse or T-bone, 
and club or short steaks, and is valued at 40 to 60 per cent more 
per pound than the full loin. This cut is made in tliree grades. 

The remainder of the full loin is called the "loin end" or 
"butt end," and is valued at about one-third less per pound 
than the full loin. It is used for sirloin steaks. 

If the short loin is cut oft' midway between the pinbone 
and the butt end of the loin, it is known as a flatbone short loin. 
It sells lower than the pinbone loin. 

The tenderloin ("beef tender" or "fillet of beef") is a long- 
muscle lying between the kidney fat and backbone, and extend- 
ing from the thirteenth rib to the butt end of the loin. As the 
name implies, it is a very tender piece ; and the great demand 
for it, notwithstanding its lack of juiciness and flavor as com- 
pared with other parts of the loin and the rib, is a striking ex- 
ample of the importance of tenderness in the esteem of buyers. 
Tenderloins sold separately are taken principally from the lower 
grades of cattle. Loins from wdiich the tenderloin has been 
removed are called "strip loins" or ''strips." Strips are usuall}' 
cut into the sirloin strip, or stripped short loin, and the sirloin 
butt, which is virtually a stripped loin end. 

The lowest grades of strips and butts are often boned out. 
in which case they are known as boneless strips and boneless 
butts, respectively. They are almost entirely used for res- 
taurant and hotel trade, to be cut into small steaks. Large 
quantities are frozen during the cutting season. 



EGGS AND MEAT IQI 

The names applied to different portions of the loin vary 
considerably in different localities. The part nearest the ribs 
is frequently called "small end of loin" or "short steak." The 
other end of the loin is called "hip sirloin" or "sirloin." 
The portion between the short steak and the sirloin is quite 
generally called the "tenderloin," for the reason that the real 
tenderloin, the very tender strip of meat lying inside the loin, 
is found most fully developed in this cut. 



,*Tr«r*^'^S*?5' I 




Fig. 3. Porterhouse Steak (flank trimmed off) 

From this portion of the loin are cut the porterhouse or 
T-bone steaks, which include the choicest part of the tender- 
loin or fillet. Short or club steak, lying between the porterhouse 
and ribs, contains no tenderloin and has less flank and more 
bone than sirloin. Porterhouse from which the tenderloin has 
been removed is also called short steak. It is sometimes called 
"Delmonico" steak in and near New York, because, it is said, 
the custom at that hotel was to remove the entire tenderloin 
from the whole porterhouse cut and serve the top as small 
steaks, the tenderloin being then used for large fillets or tender- 
loin steaks. 

Rib. This cut includes the portion between the loin and 
the chuck, and is also known as the prime or standing rib. As 



192 



A COURSE IX HOUSEHOLD ARTS 



the loin contains the choicest steaks, the rib contains the best 
roasts. 

The rib is frequently divided into first, second, and third 
cuts. The last lies nearest the chuck and is slightly less desir- 




FiG. 4. Flat-Bone Sirloin Steak 




Fig. 5. Round-Bone Sirloin Steak 

able tlian the former. The greater degree of tenderness and 
general quality in the hrst cut makes it the most popular and 
therefore the highest priced of the rib roasts ; but as beef roasts 
are valuable primarily for the lean meat they contain, the sixth 



EGGS AND MEAT 



193 



rib is the leanest and consequently is the most economical at a 
given price. The rib cut may be roasted as it stands ("stand- 
ing rib"), or it may be made into a short rib roast by cutting 
off part of the bone ; or the bone may be removed and the meat 
rolled up and tied. A rolled rib roast is easier to cook, but 
loses somewhat in flavor. 

Rounds. The full round (i, 2, 3, Fig. i) is subdivided into 
three cuts: rump, round (or buttock), and shank — the buttock 




Top 

round 



Bottom 
round 



Fig. 6. Round Steak 



being the round proper after removing the rump and shank. 
The cut surface of the full round being identical with the butt 
end of the corresponding loin, the conditions as to grain, 
marbling, color, etc., at that point determine the grade in each 
case alike. The shape of rounds varies considerably, and upon 
this depends the proportion of steaks which can be cut. The 
buttock is wholly suited to cut as round steaks, those nearest 
the rump being of best quality because containing larger muscles 
and less waste. The portion of the round on the inner side of 
the leg is more tender than tliat of the outer. As the leg lies 



194 A COURSE IN flOL'SKIlorJ) ARTS 

on the butcher's block, this inner side of the round is usually 
on the upper or top side, and is therefore called "top round." 
It consists of one large section or muscle, with a thick edge of 
fat ; while the under part, or bottom round, has two sections, 
with little fat and thin skin. 

The rump, wdien used fresh, is usually sold as 7'imip butt, 
or boneless nunp. This is made by cutting out the aitch-bone 
(liip bone) and trimming ofif square at the loin end, leaving a 
boneless cut (except the "tail-bone"). It is used mainly for 
corned beef. In some markets, as Boston and Philadelphia, 
the rump is cut so as to include a portion of the loin (hip or 
tliick sirloin), and is then sold as rump steak. Rump steaks 
cut parallel to the backbone and with the grain of the meat are 
tough, and as steaks cut at right angles to these — "cross cut 
of rump" — are generally juicy and tender and include a por- 
tion of tenderloin, they therefore command a higher price. 
For roasting, the rump is sometimes divided into back, middle, 
and face (see Boston diagram). The back is the best cut for 
this purpose, the most tender portion being that nearest to the 
loin. 

The hind shank consists of about equal parts of bone and 
boiling meat. The latter, as a retail cut, is known as the "heel 
of the round" or ''horseshoe piece." Shank meat is principally 
used, however, for Hamburger steak, sausage trimmings, and 
similar purposes. 

Chucks. Nearly equal parts of the chuck are retailed as 
shoulder steaks and boiling pieces, and a roast may be cut from 
the last two or three ribs of the first quality chucks. 

Pot roasts are cut from the lower or shank side, and stew 
and soup meat from the neck. The proportions of the chuck 
which are suitable for roasts, steaks, and boiling vary greatly, 
according to the thickness and shape. 



EGGS AND MEAT 1 95 

The style of cutting shown in Figure i is known as the 
square chuck, and is the style most used in Chicago wholesale 
markets. Chucks are sometimes cut "knuckle out" by remov- 
ing the shank with a knife to the second knuckle (the upper 
or shoulder joint), instead of sawing off below^ the joint. 

The lower grades of chucks are often further divided, in 
order to make the cut more salable. Such cuts are the shoulder 
clod and boneless chuck. (See Beef Retail Cuts.) 

The shoulder clod is a wedge-shaped piece cut from the 
fleshy part of the chuck just back of the shoulder blade, and 
extending from the elbow of the shank nearly or quite to the 
backbone. It is used for steaks and roasts, especially in res- 
taurants and small hotels. In some cases it is smoked and sold 
as *' dried beef clod." 

Boneless chucks are cut ''knuckle out" and have the shoulder 
blade and ribs removed. They are used principally for sausage. 
Necks and neck trimmings are also used for sausage meat, and 
are used to some extent fresh, for soup, hash, and mincemeat. 

Plates. Briskets and navel ends are wholesale cuts made 
from plates by cutting them in two between the sixth and 
seventh ribs, the navel containing about three-fifths the weight 
of the plate. Corned briskets and navels are sold in most retail 
markets, and the latter when boned are called ''beef rolls." 
Briskets, during recent years, have become more generally 
used, and now command a price one-third higher than navels. 
The thick end of the brisket — ''fancy brisket" — is considered 
superior to the thinner end. 

Flank. The flank is a boneless cut, and its quality and grade 
depend entirely upon the thickness and quality of the lean and 
fat. Flanks are principally corned, some, however, being re- 
tailed in the form of flank rolls, either fresh or corned. The 
flank contains a cut known as ''flank steak," which forms about 



196 A COURSE IN HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

10 per cent of the flank weight. In other words, flank steak 
may vary from about two pounds to less than one pound in 
weight. 

Sliajiks. Except when otherwise specified, this term refers 
in the market to fore shanks, or "shins." The hind shanks have 
l)een described in connection with rounds. A large percentage 
of the supply of shanks are boned in the packing house, the 
meat being known as "shank meat," and is used for sausage. 
Shanks that are sold fresh are sold for soup meat and stews, 
especially in winter. They sell about one-third higher than 
hind shanks. 

VEAL^ 

Calf carcasses weighing less than three hundred pounds, 
with comparatively light-colored, fine-grained flesh, are classed 
as z'eal. 

Veal may weigh anywhere from fifty to three hundred 
pounds, the average weight varying greatly with the season, 
being lighter in April or May and becoming heavier as the 
season advances. 

Calves under three weeks old, weighing fifty pounds or 
less, are usually condemned by the food inspectors as unfit 
for food; such calves are termed "bob veal." The choicest 
veal is from calves from four to six or eight weeks' old which 
have been fattened on milk, well sheltered, and which have had 
very little exercise. These are known as " Natives," having 
l^een raised and dressed for veal in the country at no great 
distance from the markets, and may weigh from eighty to one 
hundred twenty pounds. The calves termed "Westerns" have 
had less care and nourishment and much exercise and exposure, 
being often shipped on foot from long distances. They are 
consequently less choice. "Westerns" are best at eight or ten 

^ University of Illinois AgriculturDl Experiment Station Bulletin No. 147. 



EGGS AND MEAT 



197 




Fig. 7. Wholesale Veal Cuts 

Courtesy of the University of Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station 

1,2. Saddle (2 hind quarters) 1. Leg 3. Ribs 

3, 4. Rack (2 fore quarters) 2. Loin 4. Stew 



198 A COUKSIC IN HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

weeks. A large proportion of Western calves are frozen 
during the summer and fall and held for winter trade, those 
weighing from one hundred to one hundred seventy-five pounds 
being most used for this purpose. 

The skin of calves is often left on in order to preserve the 
color and moisture of the flesh, as veal dries out and turns dark 
much more rapidly than beef when exposed to the air. 

Quality in J^cal. The flesh of veal varies in color from 
almost white to light red. The best veal is a light pink, as 
nearly white as possible ; it should be firm in consistency rather 
than soft and flabby, smooth and velvety in appearance, and 
should have an abundance of "baby fat." Dark-colored, coarse- 
grained flesh and white, hard bones indicate advanced age, 
insufficient nourishment, or too much coarse feed. 

The shank bones should be small, and the backbone and 
breastbone soft or spongy and red ; the ribs of choice young 
calves are also red with blood. Soft cartilages, or "buttons," 
on the chine bones and brisket or breastbone also indicate 
desirable quality. 

Fat. No marbling of fat is found in veal as in beef. The 
outside fat consists only of the "fell" (a thin membrane which 
covers the carcass) and more or less "baby fat" at the flanks, 
brisket, and rump. 

^^eal, being from immature animals, is lacking in flavor ; 
and being deficient in fat, contains a high proportion of water, 
and for that reason easily dries in cooking. It is less nutritious 
and also less readily digestible than beef or mutton, and should 
be very thoroughly cooked. Little veal is canned or cured, 
owing to the demand for fresh veal and the difficulty of curing 
it satisfactorily. 

Veal Cuts. Skinned carcasses are either split through the 
backbone, making two equal sides, or, for convenience in 



EGGS AND MEAT 1 99 

handling, divided crosswise into two sections of nearly equal 
weight, which are known as ''saddles" and "racks." The two 
hindquarters together constitute the ''saddle" and the two fore- 
quarters the "rack," the line of division being in some markets 
between the eleventh and twelfth and in others between the 
tenth and eleventh ribs. The value of a saddle depends upon 
the quality and size of the loin chops and leg roasts or cutlets 
which can be cut from it. The two loins are often sold in one 
piece. Racks are judged by the thickness, quality, and color 
of the flesh, the softness and color of the backbone, and short- 
ness of shank and neck. The part of the rack most valuable 
to the retailer is the rib-cut or "hotel rack," used for chops. 
The remainder of the rack, including the breast, shank, and 
shoulder in one piece, is known as the "stew" or chuck. 

Sides are divided into fore and hind quarters. The main 
fore quarter cuts are neck, shoulder, ribs, and breast, and those 
of the hind quarter, leg and loin. The most valuable part of 
veal is the leg. The thick portion which in mature beef is the 
comparatively tough round is in veal the choicest portion. 
This when cut into one round, solid piece is known as the fillet : 
wdien cut into slices, these are termed cutlets or steaks. The 
choicest part of the fillet is termed the fricandeau. The lower 
part of the leg at about the knee is called the knuckle. Below 
this is the shank. Other portions of the calf used as food are 
the head, brain, tongue, sweetbreads,^ heart, liver, and feet. The 
bones from veal yield a considerable proportion of gelatin, 
that obtained from the feet being especially valued for making 
"calf's-foot jelly." 

^ Sweetbreads include two distinct organs, the pancreas and the thymus glands of the calf 
or lamb. Tlie thymus glands are found in the back of the tliroat, and are therefore termed 
"neck-" or " throat-sweetbreads," while the pancreas lies in the breast, and is known as the 
" heart- " or " stomach-sweetbread." 



200 A COURSE IX HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

MUTTON AND LAMB^ 

The terms "mutton" and "lamb" are used somewhat 
loosely to designate the meat from the older and younger 
sheep. In some localities the term "mutton" is applied to all 
but young animals; in others, its use is limited to the tiesh of 
full-grown sheep, the latter being perhaps the commonest usage 
in this country. The flesh of sheep under one year is called 
lamb. The term "yearling" is applied to the class intermediate 
between sheep and lambs, which are not mature enough to be 
classed with sheep, but are too old and usually too heavy to 
be classed with lambs. Dressed lambs seldoni exceed hity 
pounds in weight, the minimum weight being fifteen or 
twenty pounds, while yearlings average forty to fifty pounds. 
No distinct line, however, can be drawn between the two. either 
in weight or in degree of maturity. 

Mutton and lamb are sold almost entirely as fresh or frozen 
meats, and the bulk of the supply, except those which are 
frozen, is disposed of a week or ten days after killing. A few 
fat, heavy sheep, only, are held in the chill rooms for ripening. 
Only a small percentage, and that of the lowest grades, is 
canned, and practically none is cured. The demand for lamb 
is large in comparison with mutton, owing to the superiority in 
tenderness and flavor of the former. 

Good mutton should be covered evenly with firm, white fat. 
The amount of fat covering the carcass varies more or less 
with the grades of mutton, from choice to common, the lowest 
grades having practically no outside fat. The kidney fat is an 
important indication of quality. This should be well developed, 
but not excessive. Roth the covering and kidney fat should be 
firm, white, brittle, and flaky. The marbling of the flesh with 

' University of Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin No. 147. 



EGGS AXD MEAT 



20 1 



fat is less developed and is considered of less importance in 
judging mutton than beef. 

The flavor of mutton is influenced by the age, sex, and food 
of the animal. Mutton absorbs bad odors readily, and for this 
reason special care must be exercised in preparing it for market 
and also in storing it. 

The flesh should be firm and fine-grained, with no appear- 
ance of the coarseness or stringiness due to age or inferiority. 
The color of the flesh varies from light pink in lambs to dull 
red in mature mutton, 
and is less variable than 
in beef. 

The bones are an 
important indication 
of the maturity of the 
carcass. In lambs the 
bones of the breast, or 
brisket, are soft and red, 
and the ribs and shank 
bones are colored by 
blood vessels. The 
shoulder blade in young, 
well-fed sheep is a white, soft cartilage, which gradually changes 
to bone, according to the age of the animal. In mature sheep the 
bones are white and hard. 

The "break-joint" distinguishes lambs and yearlings from 
mature sheep. The "break-joint," or "lamb-joint," is a tempo- 
rary cartilage which forms a toothed seam or joint in the head 
of the shank or shin bone, immediately above the ankle. In 
lambs and some yearlings the foot can be broken ofif at this 
cartilage, giving the end of the shank a saw-tooth shape ; in 
lambs the broken surface is smooth and mdist, and in yearlings 




Fig. 8 

A. Break or Lamb Joint. B. Mutton or Round Joint 

Courtesy of the University of Minnesota, Department 
of Agriculture 



202 A COURSK IX IIOUSEHULD ARTS 

it becomes more porous and dry. The shanks of mature sheep 
will not "break" because the cartilage has knit and hardened 
into bone. The foot is therefore taken off at the ankle instead, 
making what is called a "round-joint." 

■ The majority of dressed lambs are known as "spring lambs" 
from June to December ; after August, however, they are fre- 
([uently quoted as lambs. Frozen lambs are sold regularly, 
though in small numbers, during the winter and spring. The 
terms "yearling lambs" and "fall lambs" are frequently used 
during the spring and summer with reference to lambs 
approaching yearlings in age, but somewhat similar to spring 
lambs in size and shape. These terms, however, are used some- 
what loosely, and do not denote distinct sub-classes. 

The term genuine spring lambs is used during April, ^lay. 
and June to differentiate early spring lambs from other lambs 
which resemble spring lambs in quality and weight, such as 
frozen lambs stored since the previous summer and light 
"yearling lambs." It is gradually dropped after the regular 
supply of spring lambs in May and June, the beginning of the 
season being about April. The earliest are known as Easter 
lambs, a large proportion of which are consumed by the local 
Jewish and Greek population, who use them in connection with 
religious customs. Winter ("hothouse" or "incubator" ) lambs 
are light-weight young lambs which precede spring lambs in 
the market by two or three months, being in season from 
January till May, a small number being available at Christmas. 
They are similar to early spring lambs, but are of lighter 
average weights and show better development in i)roportion 
to their age. Being marketed in advance of the spring lamb 
season, they sell at the highest prices. Few of these pass 
through the wholesale markets, being usually shipped to com- 
mission firms or direct to hotels, clubs, etc. The few that are 



EGGS AND MEAT 203 

sold in retail markets are sold by the quarter and not by the 
pound. 

Choice lambs are short, compact, and thick, with flesh of 
the lightest color and finest grain, small bones, and an even 
covering of white fat. Short, broad, plump legs and full, 
thick backs and loins contribute most to the desired form, 
since these are the highest priced cuts. 

The mutton carcass, like that of veal, is usually divided 
into two pieces of nearly equal weight, the saddle and the rack. 
When separated lengthwise, a saddle gives two hind quarters 
and a rack two fore quarters. 

Mutton and lamb carcasses are also sometimes split length- 
wise into halves, and the halves divided into quarters. 

The wholesale cuts as given are standard in Chicago markets. 
( See p. 204.) 

Only a small percentage of mutton saddles and still fewer 
lamb saddles are cut up in wholesale markets. When divided, 
the saddle is separated at the hip bone into leg and loin. About 
one-fourth inch depth of fat over the loin is considered the 
most desirable for choice mutton saddles of medium weight, 
and about one-eighth inch for choice lambs. The term " saddle" 
as used in cookery refers to the two loins cut from the carcass 
in one piece. In judging mutton cuts, thickness and quality of 
flesh and depth of fat covering are especially important ; and 
the degree of each may be readily determined by examining the 
"eye" of mutton, that is, the lean flesh covering the ribs and 
near the backbone. It should be deep and well-rounded rather 
than flat. 

The color of the lean varies from a dull brick red to a dark 
red, the former being preferable. Fine fiber or grain, smooth, 
velvety surface, and firm consistency of flesh are characteristic 
of choice mutton cuts. The regular or "market rack" is divided 
into the "short rack," or ribs, and the "stew." 






P^iG. 9. Mutton and Lamb Cuts 

Courtesy of University of Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station 
A. Whole carcass B. Side 



1, 2. Saddle (2 hind quarters) 

3, 4, 5. Rack (2 fore quarters) 
^ Breast of lamb is also called the plate. 



( 1. Leg 
( 2. Lorn 

( 3. Ribs or Short Rack 

4. Breast 1 ( ^ 
/ 5. Chuck I '^^^^ 



EGGS AND MEAT 205 

The ''short" or ''hotel" rack usually consists of the ribs — 
the third to the twelfth, inclusive — but is cut variously in differ- 
ent markets so as to include from eight to twelve ribs. The short 
rack brings the highest price per pound of the whole carcass, 
the legs, loin, and "stew" following in the order named. Legs 
were formerly in greater demand than ribs, but the retail 
demand for ribs now exceeds that of all other cuts. 

A "long rack," or "back," consists of loin and short rack 
cut in one piece. This can be cut entirely into chops, and is 
consequently in demand for hotels, restaurants, etc., and by 
high-class retail city markets. 

A mutton "stew" consists of the shoulder, breast, and shank 
in one piece. This is the cheapest portion of the carcass, but 
with proper treatment may be one of the most economical 
and satisfactory. It frequently sells at less than one-third the 
])rice of short racks and one-half that of legs of the same 
grade. 

Lambs are more largely sold in the carcass than sheep, 
owing both to their smaller size and to the relatively greater 
demand for the cheaper cuts of lamb. 

Unlike beef, a half or quarter of a mutton carcass can be 
often conveniently used in many households, especially in cold 
weather, and will supply a variety of cuts ; and when bought 
in this way the cost per pound is generally less. By cutting 
from the half or quarter as needed, less surface will be 
exposed, the meat will keep better, and there is less waste by 
evaporation. 

Method of Dividing a Side of Mutton for Household Use:^ 
In cutting, the leg of mutton is separated from the loin at 

the hip bone, but may be cut farther back if a small leg is wanted, 

or farther forward if a larger leg is desired. 

^ Extension Bulletin No. 45, the University of Minnesota, Department of Agriculture. 



2o6 



A COURSE IN HOUSEHOLD ARTS 




(^ 



2 S 



~ 1-1 



EGGS AND MEAT 



207 



Legs are used for roasting and for boiling and for cutlets 
or steaks. Steaks should be cut from the loin end or front of 
the leg, this part corresponding to the "top-round" in beef. 
If a leg makes too large a roast, a few steaks may be cut from it. 
A leg from an old, thin animal should be boiled rather than 
roasted. 

The leg, although one of the high priced cuts, compares 
favorably from the economical standpoint with some of the 
cheaper cuts because it 
is thick and "meaty," 
and a trimmed leg has 
a relatively small propor- 
tion of bone. In trim- 
ming a leg, be careful 
not to expose or cut into 
the lean meat, as it will 
then shrink more in cook- 
ing and be less juicy than 
if the meat were covered 
with fat. 

The sheep carcass is 
covered by a thin mem- 
brane termed the "fell," 
the removal of which 
before cooking the meat 
will lessen the strong 
flavor. 

Loin. The loin gives the best chops and one of the best 
roasts. It can always be recognized by the tenderloin, which 
is the small muscle situated under the projecting spines, or 
"spinous processes," of the backbone of this region. (See 
Fig. II, A.) 




Fig. II. The Loin 

A, The tenderloin 

Courtesy of the University of Minnesota, Department 
of Agricuhure 



208 



A COURSE IN HOUSEHOLD ARTS 



To prepare a loin for roasting, cut it in pieces of suitable 
size, then cut through the joints along the backbone with a 
cleaver, to aid in carving the meat when cooked ; avoid cutting 




Fig. 12. Loin Chops 

A. Chops from rear end of loin. B. Chops from rib end. C. Best chops from middle 

Courtesy of the University of Minnesota, Department of Agriculture 



too deeply into the flesh, and thus causing more waste in 



cooking. 



Loin Chops. Loin chops are also called "kidney" or 
"English" chops. Chops, to be juicy when cooked, should not 
be cut less than three-fourths of an inch thick. 



EGGS AND MEAT 



209 



Loin chops vary in quality, those from the rear end and 
from the rib end being- less desirable than chops cut from the 
middle of the loin (which corresponds to the porterhouse or 
"T-bone" in beef), because they have more of the tough flank 
muscle and less of the tenderloin. (See Fig. 12.) 

Rack or Ribs. The rack or rib cut is used for the same 
purposes as the loin, that is, for roasts and chops. 

Rib Chops. Rib chops are ordinarily cut one chop for each 
rib. If too thick, one chop may be cut with the rib and one 
between, but such chops 
are too thin to grade as 
first-quality chops. 

Rolled Chops. Rib 
chops are often boned, 
rolled, and fastened to- 
gether with small skew- 
ers, thinner chops being 
generally chosen for this 
purpose. 

''French chops" con- 
sist of rib chops with the 
end of the rib trimmed 
clean of flesh and fat, 
leaving only the "eye'' 
of lean with its bone 
and covering of fat : the 
latter is also sometimes removed, leaving only the lean attached 
to the bone. (See Fig. 13, C.) 

Chops from the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth ribs are the best, 
as the lean portion consists of one large muscle : chops cut near 
the shoulder (Fig. 13, B) contain more muscles, which are apt 
to be tough. \\'hen the amount of lean is considered, however. 




Fig. 13. Rib Chops 

A. Chops from 10th, Uth and 12th ribs. B. Chops 
from the shoulder end of ribs. C. French chops 

Courtesy of the University r{ Minnesota, Department 
of Agricultuie 



210 



A COURSE IN HOUSEHOLD ARTS 



chops from the shoulder end of the rib are more economical 
than those cut from the loin end. The outside skin, or " fell," 
should be removed from all chops be fore cooking. ( See Fig. 14. ) 
As a roast, the rib is used either as a plain rib roast or as a 
crown roast. To prepare for roasting, have joints cut through 
along backbone and sawed once across the rib. A roast will 
be neater and of better quality if the lower, thinner portion of 

the ribs is cut off. 
These may be used 
for broth or stew. 

For a crown roast 
the same number of 
ribs from both sides 
of a rack of mutton 
or lamb, having ribs 
from each side which 
correspond to each 
other, are required. 
Have joints in the 
backbone split open, 
and roll back the flesh 
or scrape it from 
the bones between the ribs as far down as the lean meat (as 
in French Chops ) . Bend back and shape each piece in a semi- 
circle, having ribs on the outside, and trim the ends of the 
bones evenly and rather short. Place the two corresponding 
ends together and tie or sew them to form a circle, or crown. 
( See Fig. 16. ) In roasting, protect the ends of the bones from 
the intense heat by covering them w^ith cubes or strips of fat 
salt ])ork or bacon, which are removed before serving. A cup is 
sometimes pressed into the center to preserve the shape, and 
after roasting the cavity may be filled with cooked green peas 
or with cubes of turnip. 




Fig. 14. Removing "Fell" from Chop 



EGGS AND MEAT 



211 




Shoulder. The shoulder is a useful cut, as it may be roasted, 
stewed, or cut into steaks, depending upon the skill with which 
it is cooked, for the 
flavor of a choice shoul- 
der is equal or superior 
to the loin and only 
half as expensive. The 
shoulder is usually re- 
moved by c u 1 1 i n g 
between the third and 
fourth ribs, but it may 
be made longer or 
shorter, according to 
the use to be made of it. ^^^^ ^^ Shoulder Steaks 

Two kinds of steak are a. Shoulder-blade steak. B. Shoulder or Arm Steak 

, ^ - , , , Courtesy of the University of Minnesota, Department 

cut irom the shoulder: of Agriculture 

the shoulder-blade 
steak, which is cut with 
the rib ; and the shoul- 
der or arm steak, cut 
across the lower part 
of the shoulder. These 
steaks should not be 
cut as thick as loin 
chops or rib chops, be- 
cause the muscles of 
the shoulder are 
tougher and somewhat 
''stringy." The front 
leg or front shank is 
tough and contains a 

large proportion of bone. It is generally used for broths and 

stews. _ 




Fig. 1 6. Crown Roast 

Courtesy of the University of Minnesota, De- 
partment of Agriculture 



212 



A COURSE I\ HOUSEHOLD ARTS 



Flank, and Plate or Breast. These are ordinarily cut up 
into small pieces, which are used for stewing. The plate is often 
called the breast. It is used sometimes for a "pocket of lamb" 
by separating the muscles so as to form "pockets" to hold 
dressing. 

In trimming the flank and plate, or breast, cut a narrow strip 
along the inside edge (Fig. 17, C) as far as the breastbone, then 




Fig. 17 

A. The Plate. B. The Flank 
Courtesy of the University of Minnesota, Department of Agriculture 

pull the tough membrane from the flank. To do this, start just 
back of the diaphragm, or "skirt," and pull back the membrane 
until a heavier, whiter membrane is reached. Cut across this 
membrane and pull it ofif, as it is very tough. (See D, Fig. 17.) 

Note. — Flanks and plates can sometimes be bought very cheaply, 
especially at markets which have a large chop and roast trade. 

The neck is used entirely for stei^'s and broths. The quality 
of the stew is improved by removing some of the large bones 
from the neck. The neck is removed by turning the shoulder 



EGGS AND MEAT 21 3 

front side downward and cutting the neck off squarely level 
with the back. This leaves a square shoulder. 

Trimmings. All the lean, clean trimmings obtained in the 
preparation for cooking of different cuts may be used for stew. 
The kidneys, the heart, tongue, head, brain, and sometimes the 
feet are used for food. 

Concerning their food value. Farmers' Bulletin ^26 states 
that mutton and beef have nearly the same composition. The 
percentage of waste differs very slightly in the two, being on 
an average a little less than 20 per cent in each. In the edible 
portion the percentage of protein is practically the same, 
averaging about 18 per cent in the beef and 16 per cent in the 
mutton. It is only when the fat is considered that any consider- 
able difference is noted. The percentage of fat differs very 
slightly in the two, averaging about 20 per cent of the edible 
portion in medium fat beef and a little over 30 per cent in the 
corresponding kind of mutton. Water is correspondingly low 
in the mutton and high in the beef, being about six-tenths," or 
60 per cent, of the total weight in beef and about five-tenths, 
or 50 per cent, of mutton. As stated in this Bulletin, these 
figures refer to the average of many samples of the two kinds 
of meat, and as the variations in different samples of either 
meat are wider than the differences between the average values, 
the custom of classing beef and mutton together in nutritive 
value may be considered fair. 

With regard to digestibility, there is no practical difference 
between beef and mutton, both being very thoroughly assimi- 
lated. The whole question is one of taste. So far as wholesome- 
ness is concerned, the inspection work of the Department of 
Agriculture shows that it is relatively seldom that mutton has 
to be rejected as unfit for food ; and since the ways in which it 
can be prepared are very numerous, the ability to make many 
dishes with any given foodstuff is an easy way to secure the 
variety so desirable in a diet. 




Fjg. i8. Wholesale Pork Cuts 

Courtesy of the University of Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station 

A. English Cuts 

A . Long-cut ham 

B. Long side or middle 



Short-cut ham 

Loin 

Belly (or flank) 

Picnic butt 

15oston butt 



13. 


Domestic Cuts 










0. 


Jowl 




2 


3,8. 


Side 


7. 


Hock 






4,7. 


Picnic shoulder 


8. 


Back fat 






5, 9. 


Shoulder butt 


9. 


Clear plate 






8, 9. 


Long fat back 


8. 


Back 


4 


5 


7,9. 


Rough shoulder 



EGGS AND MEAT 21 



PORK 



Pork is obtained from the carcasses of hogs and pigs. 

About three-fourths of the pork products consist of various 
cured meats (salted, smoked, etc. ) and fresh cuts ; the remainder 
consist principally of lard and a small portion of sausage and 
canned meats. Only about one-fifth of the pork products, other 
than lard, consists of fresh meat, and therefore the classifica- 
tion of pork is quite complex, owing to the number and variety 
of cured and manufactured products. 

Hog carcasses may weigh from about one hundred seventy- 
five or two hundred to four hundred pounds. Most of them 
are split down through the center of the backbone and tiank, 
in order that loins may be cut from the sides, but the method 
of splitting and trimming varies according to the use to be 
made of them. The heaviest are called ''loin hogs," being 
used for cutting loins, hams, etc. ; while hogs averaging about 
one hundred sixty pounds in weight, and pigs or young swine 
that are comparatively lean and weigh from twenty to one 
hundred pounds, are marketed as dressed hogs. These are not 
split, the head is left on, and the leaf fat is left in (see Fats 
and Oils, p. 245). They are used chiefly for fresh pork in retail 
markets where the heavier grades are cut into chops, pork 
steaks, hams, and other fresh cuts. Roasting pigs are suckling 
pigs. They have white skin and flesh, and are dressed with the 
head left on. The most desirable size is from fifteen to twenty 
pounds, but those weighing from ten to thirty pounds are also 
used. 

Quality in pork. The flesh of pork should be firm and 
smooth-grained and bright pink in color ; the fat firm and white 
and evenly distributed over the carcass ; the skin smooth and 
soft, and free from wrinkles, blotches, or bruises ; and the bones 

^ The University of Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin No. 147. 



216 A COURSE IN HOUSEHOLD ART- 

not coarse. The flesh of pigs is hghter in color than that of 
hogs, the skin is thinner, and the bones red and soft. 

Flavor. Pork is deficient in extractives, and the flavor it 
possesses is due largely to the fat it contains. 

Digestibility. Fresh pork is believed to be less readily 
digestible than either beef or mutton, owing probably to the 
large proportion of fat between the muscle fibers. The fat of 
bacon, on the other hand, seems to be in a granular form, and 
is regarded as being, next to butter, one of the most easily 
digested fats. 

Because of the possibility of the presence of parasites in 
pork, it should alw^ays be thoroughly cooked or cured. Either 
of these processes, if thoroughly done, will destroy any harm- 
ful organisms present. 

Pork Cuts: 

The method of cutting pork differs considerably from that 
employed with beef and mutton. A large proportion of the 
hog carcass consists of almost clear fat, which furnishes the cuts 
used for ''salt pork," etc. 

The various pork cuts may be divided into the following 
general classes: hams, sides, bellies (or flanks), backs, loins, 
shoulders, butts, plates, and miscellaneous. There are many 
varieties of each of these cuts, some of which are given below. 

Hams are of two general kinds, short-cut and long-cut. 
Short-cut or American cut hams are made from comparatively 
fat, plump hams, trimmed short and round. The long-cut ham 
was formerly much used for export trade, but is no longer in 
extensive demand. Boneless rolled hams are made from sweet- 
pickled short-cut hams by removing the surplus fat and the 
bone and ])ressing or tying in the form of a roll, usually with 
the skin left on, though it is sometimes removed. These are 
sold as boiled meats. 



EGGS AND MEAT 21/ 

Sides. Sides are middles of hogs from which short-cut 
hams and shoulders have been removed. Sides include the loin 
and most of the ribs, with the backbone and tenderloin removed. 
Sides may be cut lengthwise into three even-sized strips : the 
upper one-third being the back- fat, which is used for salt pork 
or for lard, and the lower two-thirds for bacon ; or they may 
be cut into two pieces, if to be cured and smoked. Sides are 
often made into various other cuts, as "short rib sides," "long 
rib sides," backs, "English" bacon sides, etc. 

Bellies or Flanks are usually made into bacon, or otherwise 
cured by salting, smoking, pickling, etc. 

Backs are cut variously and are made from short-rib sides 
by cutting off the flank ; they therefore contain the loins, back- 
fat, and back ribs, but not the backbone or the tenderloin. 

Loiii;; fat backs consist of the upper half of the side, cut 
through the center of ribs from the ham to the shoulder, which 
it includes, with loin and shoulder-blade bone taken out. 

Loins. Pork loins are made from the sides of hogs, with 
the flank and the back-fat cut off. They contain the backbone, 
back ribs, and tenderloin, and only about one- fourth to one- 
half inch of fat is left on the outside. The loin is the leading 
fresh pork cut and is used entirely for roasts and chops. The 
loin is sometimes called the chine. 

Loin rolls are made from heavy loins by boning completely, 
tying three boneless rolls together lengthwise in the form of 
a roll. They are cured by sweet pickling and smoking, and 
then boiled. These rolls wxigh from fifteen to twenty-two 
pounds, and are used for restaurant and delicatessen trade. 

Tenderloins consist of short, round muscles lying under- 
neath and on each side of the backbone; they are attached to 
the "slip bone" (which is the portion of the hip bone that lies 
in contact with the backbone near the end of the loin) and 



2l8 A COURSE IX HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

extend from the loin butt almost to the last rib. They weigh 
from one- fourth to one pound each, but those weighing three- 
fourths of a pound or over are most extensively used. These 
are cut from hogs that are too heavy to cut into regular pork 
loins. Tenderloins are sold only as a fresh cut. 

Shoulders. Rough shoulders are untrimmed shoulders as 
cut from the carcass, separated from the side between the first 
and second ribs, and with jowl (lower part of the cheek and 
neck) cut off square. They are used fresh, but more generally 
trimmed and smoked. 

Shoulder Butts. Butts are cut from the end or top of the 
shoulder and from the jowl. 

Picuic shoulders (formerly termed California hams) are 
cut two and one-half ribs wide. The shank is cut off above 
the knee joint, trimmed on the lean surface as full as possible; 
the butt is taken off close to the shoulder blade, trimmed close 
and smooth, and well rounded in the shape of a ham. These 
are now called *' picnics." 

Pieuic butts are picuics from which the surplus fat and the 
skin are removed and the shank cut off close to the breast. 
They are^ not trimmed as clc^ely as regular picnics. 

Bostou butts are the ends or top pieces cut from heavy 
shoulders when making picnics. The neck bone, ribs, and 
surplus fat are removed and the piece trimmed smooth. They 
include the end of the shoulder blade, and average from three 
to seven pounds in weight. These may be used fresh, but are 
generally salted for export trade. 

Boneless butts, or lean butts, consist of lean, boneless por- 
tions of Boston butts between the blade bone and the neck. 

Plates are made from shoulder butts. Regular plates are 
made from shoulder butts by removing a boneless butt, thus 
making a fat piece with a facing of lean, containing the end 



EGGS AND MEAT 219 

of the blade bone. Clear plates are clear fat cuts made by re- 
moving the lean portion of a Boston butt. They weigh four 
to eight pounds. 

Butts and plates are generally cured by salting, smoking, 
or pickling, although some cuts are used fresh. 

Spare ribs consist of the ribs trimmed from the side, with 
as little lean as possible. They are generally sold fresh, but 
are sometimes cured. 

Backbones, neck bones, and shoulder-blade bones are some- 
times sold fresh like spareribs. Hocks consist of the shank or 
foreleg cut from the shoulder, including the portion between 
the breast and the knee. Pigs' feet, cleaned and boiled or 
pickled, are also used. The Jiead is used for headcheese. 
Other portions of the animal, as liver, etc., are also used as 
food. Trimmings are almost entirely utilized in sausage 
manufacture. 

Lard. From one-third to one-tenth of the hog carcass is 
made into lard in the large packing houses. The grades differ 
according to the kinds of fat they contain, methods of render- 
ing, color, flavor, and grain. 

The standard grades of lard : Kettle-Rendered Leaf, Kettle-Rendered , Neutral, Prime 
Steam, Refined, and Compound Lard. 

Kettle-Rendered Leafi Lard consists oileai fat ori\y. It is the whitest in color, and finest 
in grain and flavor of all the grades of lard. It is distinguished from the other kinds of lard by 
the wavy or fluffy appearance of the surface, known as " crinkly top," a characteristic specially 
peculiar to leaf lard. For retail trade it is sold chiefly in pails of various sizes. 

Kettle-Rendered Lard is made from back fat with or without a proportion of leaf lard 
(seldom more than 20 per cent) and not over 5 per cent of lard stearin, which is the residue after 
pressing the oil from lard. It is excelled in whiteness, grain, and crinkly appearance of the 
surface only by the genuine leaf lard. 

Neutral Lard is made from leaf or back fat melted in water-jacketed open kettles, at about 
128° F., at which temperature the fat partially liquefies without cooking. No. 1 Neutral is 
made from leaf fat only. When drawn off and strained, the melted fat is tasteless, free of acids 
and impurities, and smooth-grained ; it also remains unchanged in odor and color. This is used 
principally in the manufacture of butterine and oleomargarine. No. 2 Neutral is made from 
back fat melted in the same manner as No. 1 grade, but is neither so white in color nor so fine 
in grain. 

Prune Steam Lard is made from the fat trimmings from all parts of the hog, rendered in 

closed tanks under about 40 pounds' direct steam pressure (240° F.) without refining, stirring, or 
bleaching. 

Refined Lard \s made from the Prime Steam Lard by a bleaching and stirring process. 

Compound Lard, or Lard Compound, is a mixture of lard, stearin, and other animal fat, and 
veo:etable oil, usually cottonseed oil. All the ingredients must be named on the label, and the 
proportion of lard must equal or exceed that of any of the other ingredients. 



^'^'O, 



--■ '-::::f 



^j\y^uV# ^.i^ 





the bfer cr emul^e mar/<ev off to ^huvj the vet ail clft5 

Fig, 19 



\ 



N 




'N. '^f'^. 



2iP Ffis-i: 



Co-!i_fi:s 



U G ^^'^ *" ^ 




I ih "I \ ^v 







^HO'.ViHQ WiiChi THE CHOPS A N II CUTLETS OF vr.hi ZOMF IN THE CA7^X^f\SS. 



Fig. 20 



Ham 
i-ec- }?OAST on PORF STi^K. 




roF 



^,^ CHQf^ O'^ '■'^"^ ^"'^^Ts 



VOAST OF CHOPi 



THE FE FAIL CUT 5 OF PORK. /»5 S€l/<t IN THE WHOLE P/<l 



Fig. 21 



EGGS AND MEAT 



221 



QUICK-COOKING CUTS 





Weight 
Pounds 






Weight 
Pounds 


Porterhouse steak 


l\ 


to 


3 


Mutton chops 


J 


\ to i 


Club steak 


I 


to 


2 


Lamb chops 




i to h 


Sirloin steak 


2 


to 


5 


Veal chops 


1 


i to i 


Round steak 


2 


to 


5 


Veal cutlets 


\ 


[ to 12 


Top round steak 


I^ 


to 


3 


Pork chops 


1 


; to h 


Chuck steak 


2 


to 


4 


Salt pork 


I 


to 3 


Flank steak 


I 


to 


2 


F'ancy breakfast bacon 


1 


to S 


Veal steak 


I 


to 


2 


Medium to fat bacon 


.1 


t to i 


Pork steak 


I 


to 


i^ 








MODERATELY QUICK-COOKING ^lEATS 










EIGHT 

'ounds 






Wei(;ht 
Pounds 


Prime ribs of beef 


(first 






Shoulder of lamb 


3 


to 4 


cut) 


4 


to 


12 


Crown lamb roast 


3^ 


to 6 


Prime ribs of beef 


(last 






Hind quart'r ( spring lamb ) 


5 


to 8 


cut) 


4 


to 


12 


Fore quart'r ( spring lamb ) 


5 


to 8 


Shoulder block roast 


4 


to 


8 


Pork loin 


2 


to 8 


Chuck rib roast 


4 


to 


10 


Leg of pork 


3 


to 12 


Beef rump 


4 


to 


12 


Ham (smoked) ' 


3 


to 12 


Beef tenderloin (fillet) 2 


to 


6 


Pork tenderloin 


1 
2 


to \ 


Leg of mutton 


6 


to 


9 


Pork shoulder 


2 


to 5 


Loin of mutton 


3 


to 


6 


Spare ribs 


\ 


to I 


Shoulder of mutton 


3 


to 


6 


Veal loin 


3 


to 6 


Leg of lamb 


3* 


to 


6 


Veal leg, (fillet) 


3 


to 12 


Loin of lamb 


2 


to 


4 


Veal shoulder 


3 


to 8 




SLOW 


-COOKING MEATS 






Boiling jMeats — 


WEIfiHT 

Pounds 




■\ 


Wek.ht 
Pounds 


Beef horseshoe piece 


( end 






Leg of mutton 


6 


to 9 


round) 


4 


to 


8 


Shoulder of mutton 


3 


to 6 


Beef shoulder clod 


3 


to 


6 


Shoulder of lamb 


3 


to 4 


Rib ends of beef 


2 


to 


6 


Leg of pork 


3 


to 12 


Cross ribs of beef 


2 


to 


5 


Ham, smoked 


3 


to 12 


Beef brisket 


3 


to 


8 


Pork shoulder, fresh 


3 


to 8 


Corned beef, rump, i 


flank, 






Pork shoulder, smoked 


3 


to 8 


plate or brisket 


2 


to 


8 


Pork hocks 


i^ 


to 2* 


Beef tongue, fresh 


3 


to 


5 


Back bones and neck bones 


2 


to 8 


Beef tongue, smoked 


2 


to 


3 









222 



A COURSE IN HOUSEHOLD ARTS 



Stewing Meats — 

Beef plate 
Beef flank 
Drop tenderloin^ 
Beef skirts^ 
Beef neck 

Soup and Broth jMeats — 

Shin soup bones 

Hind shank soup bones 

Knuckle soup bones 

Oxtail 

Beef neck 



VVeic.ht 
Pounds 






Whight 
Pounds 


3 to 


6 


Beef shin 


2 


to 5 


2 to 


6 


Breast of mutton 


2 


to 4 


I to 


2 


Breast of lamb 


I 


to 2h 


I to 


2 


Veal breast 


2 


to 5 


I to 


3 


Veal neck 


I 


to 2 


I to 


4 


Beef shoulder clod 


I 


to 2 


I to 




Beef round 


I 


to 2 


3 to 


7 


JMutton shoulder 


I 


to 2 


I to 


2 


Mutton neck 


I 


to 2 


I to 


3 


Mutton shanks 


I 


to ih 



The Retail Cuts as given are the cuts generally made in the Middle 
West. In many places, particularly in small towns, the chuck, shoulders, 
and leg cuts are used still more largely for steaks and chops than is 
shown here. In the East, roasts are more popular, and the style of cut- 
ting is adapted to the use of larger cuts. Variations of the methods of 
cutting illustrated apply chiefly to the shoulder and leg cuts. (From 
Better Meat for Less Money, by Louis D. Hall, Assistant Professor of 
Animal Husbandry, University of Illinois. Used by his kind permission 
and that of Good Housekeeping, in which the article appeared, Decem- 
ber, 1912.) 

* The term " Beef Skirts," in wholesale market parlance, generally refers to the thin portion 
of the diaphragm which is trimmed from along the ribs on the inner portion of the carcass. Tlie 
" drop tenderloin," or "hanging tenderloin," is a fleshy piece formed by an extension of the 
diaphragm muscle at the point w'here it joins the vertebrae ; and it is so called because it seems 
to form an extension of the tenderloin proper. " Beef Skirts " are not commonly used in family 
trade, but are more generally utilized for the manufacture of sausage and similar products. 



CHAPTER XIII 

Meat — Continued 

COOKING 

Meat is cooked chiefly to improve its flavor and appearance. 
Cooking also kills parasites or other organisms which may be 
present. The methods of cooking meat vary according to the 
object in view, which may be (i) to extract the juice, as in 
soups, broths, and beef tea; (2) to retain the juice, as in boil- 
ing, roasting, broiling, frying, etc.; (3) through a combination 
of both these methods, as in stewing, to retain part of the juice 
in the meat and to extract part of it to enrich the gravy. 

Methods of cooking meat will vary also, according to the 
size and texture, as well as the tenderness or toughness of 
the cut, the length of time required in its preparation and cook- 
ing, and the temperature most favorable for the result desired. 

Methods covering these points may be t\ius grouped : 

1. Quick cooking, requiring a hot fire ; medium or thin cuts 
of tender meat — broiled or pan-broiled ; saute. 

2. Moderately quick cooking, requiring hot fire ; large or 
thick cuts of tender meat, suitable for roasting. 

3. Slow cooking at comparatively low^ temperature; object, 
to soften, without disintegrating, the tissues of tough meats, 
as in boiling, stewing, "fireless cooking," or to extract the 
nutritive and flavoring substances, as in broths and soups. 

4. Searing quickly the surface of the meat to seal in the 
juices, and then subjecting the meat to prolonged cooking at 
low temperature, as in pot-roasting and braising. 



224 -^ COURSE IN HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

Extracting Juice. The following simple experiments will 
show the best way to extract the juice : 

Experiments zvith meat: i. Cut a small piece of lean beef into three 
equal parts. Put one piece into a glass half filled with cold water ; let 
it stand 15 minutes or longer. 

2. Scrape or cut very fine the second piece of beef. Put it into a 
glass half filled with water ; let it stand 15 minutes or longer. Compare 
with No. I. 

3. Scrape or chop fine the third piece of beef and put it into a glass 
half filled with cold water to which has been added » t. salt. Let it 
stand 15 minutes or longer. Compare with No. 2. 

4. (a) Strain through cheesecloth a portion of the water in which 
meat in Experiment 2 has been soaking. Heat the water in a small 
saucepan and boil 5 minutes without stirring. 

(b) Repeat, using a portion of the water from Experiment 3 
to which salt was added before soaking meat. 

5. Put meat with second portion of liquid remaining from Experi- 
ment 2 into a cup. Place cup on a rest in a saucepan containing cold 
water, and put saucepan over heat. Cook, and stir constantly until the 
liquid turns reddish brown. Remove from heat at once and strain. 
Compare with No. 4. 

Inference from experiments: ( i and 2) Cold water softens 
and loosens the fibers and extracts the juices of meat; (the 
smaller the pieces the larger the amount of juice extracted in 
a given time). Meat should not, therefore, be washed in cold 
water to cleanse it ; it should be unped with a damp cloth. 

(3) \ small quantity of salt added to the water in which 
meat is soaked extracts more juice in a given time. 

Note. — Certain of the protein substances in meat are insoluble in 
water, but are soluble in water containing a small proporton of salt. 

(4 a and h) Boiling the water containing the juice of meat 
coagulates the dissolved albumin, causing it to separate from 
the liquid portion, which becomes clear and colorless. 

(5) Heating the water and meat together slowly dissolves 
more of the soluble materials of the meat, as shown by the 



MEAT 225 

deepened color of the water. The change in color from that 
of raw beef, bright red, to that of beef cooked "rare," with- 
out heating enough to cause the separation of the coagulated 
albumin, shows the correct method of cooking beef tea. 

The clear liquid which remains when the coagulated albumin 
is strained out of beef tea contains only the extractives or 
flavoring substances, with the soluble mineral matter of the 
meat. Even in ''strong" beef tea which is carefully made, 
the amount of protein present has been found to be less than 
2 per cent. 

Note. — The extractives give the ''meaty" flavor to beef tea, beef 
extracts, etc., and since the true dietary value of these and of commer- 
cial meat preparations, such as bouillon cubes, fluid and semi-solid 
meat extracts, bottled meat juices, and similar preparations, seems to be 
greatly misunderstood, these have been made the subject of investiga- 
tion by the United States Department of Agriculture. Bulletin 27. 
Bureau of Chemistry, says in this connection that "JMost of these cubes 
have no advertised claim to be highly concentrated beef broth or essence. 
Many people, however, believe them to be highly concentrated meat, 
and therefore to possess high nutritive value, especially for invalids, but 
this is not true." Complete analysis of ten of the leading brands of 
bouillon cubes showed that "common salt is the greatest constituent, 
being from 49 to 72 per cent of the total weight of the cubes. The 
amount of meat extract ranges from 8 per cent in the poorest brands 
to but 28 in the best brands. The third important ingredient is plant 
or vegetable extract, which constitutes from 3 to 30 per cent. This 
plant extract is useful because of its flavoring properties, although it 
has but slight, if any, nutritive value." 

The Bulletin thus summarizes the result of the investigations : 
A comparison of houillon cubes and other commercial meat 
preparations and homemade broths and soups shows that while 
bouillon cubes are valuable stimulants or flavoring agents, they 
have little or no real food value ; that is, they can neither build 
tissue nor yield energy, and are therefore relatively expensive. 
Also that semi-solid meat extracts have only a slight food 



226 A COURSK I\ IlOl'SiaiOLD ARTS 

value, owing to a small amount of protein which they contain. 
They also are stimulants and flavoring adjuncts, and are more 
expensive than homemade soups : while fluid meat extracts arc 
dilute solutions of semi-solid meat extracts, and are more ex- 
pensive because they contain more water. Commercial meat 
juices are largel}- deprived of their most valuable constituent, 
the coagulable protein, or muscle-building food. They are 
similar to fluid meat extracts, and some makes cost more. 
Homemade meat broth and vegetable soups contain more meat 
extractives, protein, and fat, and are less expensive than the 
commercial preparations. 

The meat which is strained from beef tea, broth, etc., has 
little or no flavor, according to the size of the pieces and the 
length of time it has soaked in the water. The chief muscle- 
protein remains in the meat after the soluble albumin, etc., has 
been extracted ; therefore this meat, although lacking in flavor, 
still contains considerable nutriment. If combined with meat 
which has not had the flavor extracted, or with vegetables, and 
well seasoned with salt, pepper, etc., this tasteless meat may 
be made palatable as well as nutritious. 

Meat should be removed from the paper in which it is 
wrapped as soon as brought in from the store, as the paper will 
absorb the juice and may impart an unpleasant flavor to the 
meat. 

Beef Tea 

I lb. lean beef i pt. cold water 

i t. salt 

Scrape or chop the meat fine, and put it with the cold water 
and salt into the top of a double boiler or into a bowl or glass 
jar ; cover and let stand 30 minutes or longer. Place top of 
double boiler over lower part, which should be one-third full 



MEAT 22/ 

of cold water. Heat slowly ; stir frequently and cook until the 
liquid turns reddish brown. Strain at once through a coarse 
strainer into a heated cup. If any fat is present, it may be 
removed by laying a piece of soft paper or bread on the top. 
Repeat if necessary. Season to taste and serve immediately. 
If a glass jar or a bowl be used, place it upon a rest in a sauce- 
pan partly hlled with cold water. Cook as directed in using 
double boiler. 

Mutton Broth 
3 lb. neck or fore quarter ^ c. rice or barley 

I large onion 2 qt. cold water 

Salt and pepper 

Wipe meat with a damp cloth. Remove all fat and cut 
meat into small pieces. Put meat and bones into a kettle con- 
taining the cold water, and let stand 30 minutes ; add the onion, 
sliced, and the washed rice or barley. Cook slowly 3 hours ; 
remove bones and meat, and season to taste with salt and pepper. 
Serve hot. 

If the meat is to be served with the broth, cut the meat into 
large pieces ; use only enough water to cover, and do not allow 
the meat to stand in the water before heating. Tapioca or sago 
may be used instead of rice or barley. Chicken or other meat 
broth may be made in the same manner as mutton broth. 

Celery seed or the coarse, green leaves of celery (fresh or 
dried) give an agreeable flavor to the broth. 

Meat Cooked in Water 

The less choice cuts of meat are best when cooked by some 
method in which water is used, as in so-called boiling, steam- 
ing, stewing, etc., the object being to soften without disinte- 
grating the tissues. IMeat cooked in water will have less flavor 
than if roasted or broiled, therefore it should be well seasoned. 



228 A COURSE IN HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

Flavors may be added when preparing the meat for cooking, 
or they may be siippHed by means of gravies or sauces. Salt 
is generally added to the water in which meat is cooked, to 
improve the llavor of the meat, one teaspoonful being allowed 
for each quart of water. 

When the juice of meat is to be retained, salt should not be 
added to the water until meat is nearly cooked, as experiments 
have shown that more of the soluble material of meat is ex- 
tracted in slightly salted than in clear water. 

Red or dark meats, as beef, mutton, venison, etc., are fre- 
quently cooked rare ; while white meats, as lamb, veal, chicken, 
etc., are better when well done. Pork should always be cooked 
thoroughly, as dangerous parasites, sometimes present, will be 
thus destroyed. Tough fowl may be cooked in water or steamed 
over water until tender : the meat may then be used in the same 
manner as chicken. 

Experiment i. Cut two i-inch cubes of lean raw beef. Wipe the 
meat with a damp cloth. Heat i c. of water in a small saucepan. When 
boiling, put into it a cube of meat. Remove saucepan at once from the 
heat and place on table. Let stand 8 to lo minutes. Cut and examine ; 
note appearance of exterior and interior. Press out juice. 

Experiment 2. Heat i c. of water in a small saucepan. When boil- 
ing, put into it the other cube of raw beef. Boil 6 minutes. Cut and 
compare with No. i. 

Inference from Experiments: (i) Plunging meat into boil- 
ing water coagulates the albumin and hardens and shrinks the 
fibers on the surface, forming a coating which helps to keep 
the juice inside the meat, as the water is not colored. If the 
cooking is continued at a temperature several degrees below 
boiling, a longer time will be required, but the meat will be 
tender and juicy. 

XoTE. — Long-continued cooking in water at a moderate temperature 
will make tough meat tender. The temperature most favorable for 
cooking the albumin of meat is the same as for the albumin of eggs — 
between 160° and 180° F. 



MEAT 229 

The "simmering" burner of a gas stove will usually inain- 
tain the temperature high enough for cooking^the meat below- 
boiling point, and the double boiler is also useful for small 
pieces, as a temperature as high as 200° F. can be reached 
and nothing will burn while water remains in the lower part. 
A tireless cooker also may be used. 

(2) Continued cooking in boiling water coagulates the 
albumin and shrinks the fibers all through the meat, which 
becomes hard and dry inside as well as on the surface. If the 
meat is cut. no juice can be pressed out. 

General rules for cooking meat in zvater to retain the juice: 

Prepare the meat. Remove extra fat and wipe the meat 
with a damp cloth. Remove loose ends or secure by tying, to 
form one piece, so that the meat will cook evenly. Plunge the 
meat into enough boiling water to cover. As the meat cools 
the water somewhat, reheat to boiling point and boil from 
5 to 10 minutes, to harden the outside of the meat ; then lower 
the temperature to about 180°, and keep it there during the 
time required for cooking the meat. 

The time required will vary according to the size, the shape, 
and the tenderness or toughness of the meat. More time will 
be required for a thick, cubical piece than for a thin ])iece of 
the same weight. In cooking tough meat, allow 30 minutes 
or longer for each pound of meat. In cooking tender meat, 
allow from 15 to 20 minutes per pound. As some time will be 
required for the heat to reach the center of the meat, it is usual 
to allow- 20 to 30 minutes extra for this purpose. 

As some of the flavoring substances (extractives) will be 

dissolved in the water, however carefully the meat is cooked, 

the w^ater should be saved and used in making soup, broth, 

gravy, etc. 

Note. — With meat cooked in water, or so-called "boiled meat." the 
best results are obtained by using a large piece of meat, because the loss 



230 A COUKSK IX liOUSKIlOl,!) ARTS 

of flavoring material is less than in a small piece, a larger proportion 
of surface being exposed. 

The length of time the cooking is continued also influences the 
percentage of such loss, and experiments have shown that the amount 
of material escaping from meat into the water after cooking several 
hours is practically the same whether the meat was placed in cold water 
and slowly brought to the boiling point or put into boiling water at the 
start. — Office of Experiment Station, Bulletin Xo. 141. 

The material thus removed from the meat is not really lost if the 
water is utilized for making soup, etc., or for cooking vegetables, 
although the flavor of the meat is lessened. 



Mutton or Lamb Cooked in Hot Water 

The leg, shoulder, or a piece from the neck may be tised. 
Remove the membrane and any extra fat, and wipe the meat 
with a damp cloth. Put into a kettle enough boiling water to 
cover the meat. Place the meat in the boiling water, cover the 
kettle, and boil 10 minutes. Add the salt and lower the tem- 
perature of the water by moving the kettle to the back of range 
or by turning down the gas. The water should not boil again 
during the cooking of the meat, neither should it be allowed to 
get too cool. Cook slowly according to directions. A leg of 
mutton weighing 12 pounds will take about 3 hours. When 
cooked, put the meat on a hot platter and keep hot while the 
gravy is made. The water in which the meat has been cooked 
may be used in making the gravy. Mint sauce is often served 
with lamb. 

Gravy for Mutton 

2 c. hot water from meat J c. cold water 

4 tb. flour Salt and pepper to taste 

Add the cold water to the flour gradually, and stir until the 
mixture is smooth. Add the 2 c. hot water slowly, and stir 
constantly. Put mixture into a saucepan, place over the heat 



M KAT 23 I 

and boil 5 minutes, stirrini;- all the time. Add seasoning and 
serve hot. For caper sauce, add ] c. of capers to the gravy, 
and a little vinegar or lemon juice if desired. 



Mint Sauce 




^ c. mint leaves chopped 


i c. vinega 


fine 


I tb. susrar 



Wash the mint leaves, drain, and chop very hne. Alix 
sugar and vinegar, and add the mint leaves. Let stand 15 to 
20 minutes in a warm place before serving. 

Rolled Beef 

Use 2 or 3 pounds from the flank, or the bottom of the round. 
Wipe the meat, remove any membrane or extra fat, and trim 
meat until of uniform thickness. If very tough, the meat may 
be allowed to stand in vinegar several hours before cooking. 
Spread the meat with a savory dressing ; roll the meat so that 
ends may be securely closed, to prevent dressing from escaping, 
and tie with buttered string. Wrap in cheesecloth or a towel, 
and plunge the roll into boiling water. Boil 5 minutes, then 
lower the temperature and cook slowly 3 or 4 hours, or until 
tender. Remove strings and cloth, and place meat on a hot 
platter. Serve hot with gravy, or cold, cut in slices. 

Dressing for Rolled Beef 

J c. cracker crumbs i tb. fine-chopped bacon 

} t. salt ] t. mixed sweet herbs or 

i ssp. pepper i t. chopped parsley 

T tb. fine-chopped onion 2 tb. beaten egg 

Hot water to moisten 

Alix all but the last two ingredients, then add the beaten egg 
and enough hot water to moisten sufficiently to spread. 



232 A COURSK IX HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

Gravy 

4 tb. beef fat 2 c. water from meat 

2 tb. chopped onion I t. salt 

4 tb. flour 1 t. pepper 

Cook chopped onion in the fat until ^lightly browned, but 
not burned. Mix salt and pepper with the flour, and add to 
onion : cook until mixture begins to brown, then add the water 
gradually and stir constantly. Let boil 5 minutes and strain. 
Pour around the meat, or serve from a sauce boat. Cooked 
tomatoes may be used with the water from the meat, and less 
onion, if preferred. 

XoTE. — Of the two methods of making gra\y commonly employed, 
that of thickening a liquid containing fat with a mixture of flour and 
water, and that of heating flour in the fat and then adding the liquid, 
the latter is to be preferred in the case of mutton, because of the fact 
that some mutton fats solidify easily. If. however, the fat is intimately 
associated with the flour, its hardening is not so noticeable. It should 
be added, however, that the argument for this method is chiefly based 
on its greater palatability ; and the fact should not be overlooked that 
some persons consider gravy so made to be unwholesome even when 
the fat has not been heated sufficiently to be decomposed, a belief which 
apparently has not been tested in the laboratory. — Farmers' Bulletin 326, 
Mutton and Its J\ilur in the Diet. 

Stewing Meat 

Stezci)ii^ is cooking slowly or gently for a long time m a 
small quantity of water. 

In stews, the meat and the broth (that is, the water in which 
the meat has been cooked ) are served together, with or without 
the addition of vegetables. 

In making a stew, the object is to cook the meat in such a 
way that part of the juice will remain in the meat and part be 
extracted in order to tiavor the ofravv or broth. This is accom- 



MEAT 233 

plished l)y dividing the meat into two portions, after cuttint^ 
into pieces suitable for serving. To extract the juice from the 
first portion, cover with cold water and heat slowly to the boil- 
ing point. Brown the second portion of meat in hot fat and 
add to the first portion when the water boils, or add it without 
browning. Cook slowly 2 to 3 hours, or until meat is tender. 

A second method is to put the meat, cut into suitable pieces, 
into a stewpan, with or without previously browning in fat. 
Add boiling water to cover meat. Cook 2 to 3 hours below 
boiling temperature. 

Tough meat is suitable for stews because it is juicy and 
because, by this long, slow cooking in water, it can be made 
tender. The tougher portions of beef, mutton, lamb, or veal 
may be used. Meat with some bone and fat makes a richer 
stew than one made only of lean meat. Pieces of cold cooked 
meat may also be used. 

Browning in smoking hot fat helps to keep the juice in tlie 
meat, and also gives a richer flavor and color to the stew. For 
the same reason the vegetables also are sometimes browned 
before adding to the stew. The pieces of meat are usually 
rolled in flour before cooking in the hot fat, to dry the surface, 
and thus make them brown more quickly. The flour also helps 
to thicken the stew. 

The vei^^etables commonly used in stews are onions, carrots, 
turnips, and potatoes. Tomatoes also are sometimes used, as 
well as string beans and green peas. 

The usual seasonings are salt and pepper. Sweet herbs, 
celery, parsley, a piece of bay leaf, one or two cloves, or a little 
catsup may be used for variety, but care must be taken to use 
only enough of these materials to give a delicate flavor. 

Dumplings are often served with stews. 

The materials for a stew may be put into a covered ])an, 



234 A COURSE IX HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

an earthenware dish, or a bean pot, and cooked for the same 
length of time in a moderate oven instead of on the stove. 
This method is called braising. Besides braising, other varieties 
of stewing are the fricassee, smothering, pot-roasting, etc. 



Beef Stew 

2 lb. beef i carrot 

3 tb. flour 4 potatoes 
2 onions, sliced Water 

I turnip Salt and pepper 't 

Beef from the neck, shoulder, or lower part of the round 
may be used. Wipe meat with a damp cloth and cut meat into 
i|-inch or 2-inch cubes. Extra fat may be removed and part 
of it heated to brown the meat. Put the poorer meat, as ragged, 
bony, gristly pieces, into a kettle, cover with cold water, and 
heat to boiling point. Heat the fat in a frying pan until smok- 
ing hot. Roll the more choice pieces of meat in the flour. Put 
them into the hot fat and turn them until the surface is slightly 
browmed. Brown the onions also, and put into, the frying pan 
the rest of the flour, if any remains after meat has been rolled. 
Put the meat and onions into the kettle when water reaches the 
boiling point ; rinse out the frying pan with a little of this 
water, and then pour it back into the kettle, which should be 
placed where the w^ater will be kept very hot, but below^ boil- 
ing point. Cook slowdy 2 or 3 hours, or until meat is tender. 
Prepare turnip and carrot, and cut into thin slices or ^-inch 
cubes. Three-quarters of an hour before stew is to be served, 
move kettle where water will boil, and add turnij) and carrot. 
\\"ash and pare the potatoes, cut into quarters, parboil 5 minutes, 
drain, and add to stew 20 minutes before serving. Season to 
taste with salt and pepper, and add boiling water if necessary. 



MEAT 235 

There should be enough liquid to come nearly to the top, but 
not to cover the vegetables. The stew may be thickened with 
flour if desired. Dumplings, if used, should be added 12 minutes 
before stew is to be served. Place them so that they will rest 
on the top of the meat and vegetables. The stew should boil 
steadily during the time required to cook the dumplings. 

Dumplings 

2 c. sifted flour ^ t. salt 

4 t. baking powder | c. water or milk 

Sift dry ingredients together ; add liquid gradually. Drop 
the mixture by the spoonful on top of the boiling stew. Boil 
12 to 15 minutes without lifting cover. " • 

Veal or Lamb Stew 

Pieces from the neck, the ends of the ribs, the shoulder, 
or the leg may be used. Before cooking, remove the tough 
membrane and fat surrounding the meat. Wipe the meat with 
a damp cloth and cut into pieces suitable for serving. Put meat 
and a sliced onion into a kettle, cover with boiling water, and 
reheat quickly to boiling point. Reduce heat and cook slowly 
until the meat is tender. Remove meat to a hot platter, cover, 
and keep hot. Thicken part of the water to make a sauce, pour 
over the meat, and serve at once. To vary the flavor, one-half a 
small carrot and turnip may be cut into cubes, browned in fat, 
and added before meat is cooked ; and ^ c. of barley or rice 
may also be cooked with the meat. The broth may also be 
varied by flavoring with i tb. of fine-chopped i)arsley, or ^ t. 
of celery seeds, or the green celery leaves. Thicken the stew 
with flour, or use the following sauce. 



236 A COUKS1-: IX HOUSEHOLD ARl S 

Sauce for Veal or Lamb 
4 tb. butter or fat from 2 c. meat broth, or i c. broth 

the meat and i c. milk 

3 to 4 tb. flonr Salt and pepper to taste 

Coml:)ine materials as directed for ^^'hite Sauce. 

Broiling Meat 

Broiling, in the strict sense, is cooking by direct exposure 
to heat over red-hot coals. The cooking done by means of the 
Hame in the "broiling oven" of a gas range is also called broil- 
ing, and cooking with little or no fat, in a very hot frying pan. 
is termed "pan-broiling." 

In broiling, as in cooking in hot water, the object is to retain 
the juice of the meat, and the principle governing the cooking 
is the same — that is, the meat should be exposed to intense heat 
long enough to coagulate the albumin and to shrink the fibers 
on the surface, thus forming a coating to keep the juice inside 
the meat. The heat should then be reduced, that the inside may 
be cooked more slowly, and so be kept juicy instead of becom- 
ing dry. 

In cooking in hot water, the heat is carried to the meat by 
the water ; while in broiling, the meat is cooked by means of the 
heat which radiates from the hot coals through the air to 
the meat. Broiling, if properly done, causes changes in the 
surface of the food which produce savory substances in addi- 
tion to those giving the natural flavor. 

Experiment i. Cut a small piece of raw beef, about lialf an incli 
thick, into three pieces of equal size. Put one on the end of a metal 
skewer, and hold it as close as possible to a fire of red-hot coals or the 
flame of a gas stove for 2 minutes. Cut and examine. 

Ilxperimeut 2. Put a second piece of the beef into a double wire 
l)roik'r. Hold the broiler 2 or 3 inches above the heat for 2 minutes, and 
watch closelv ; remove from heat and e.xamine. 



Ml- AT 2^J 

Experiment 3. Put the third piece of meat into the broiler. Hold 
it close to the heat while counting ten ; turn and repeat until twenty 
has been counted for each side. Raise broiler 4 or 5 inches from the 
heat ; count ten and turn. Repeat. Cut and compare with meat of 
Experiments i and 2. 

Inference from Experiments: (i) Meat which is held close 
to hot coals or a gas flame will be cooked very quickly, but will 
be hard and dry ; therefore, only meat which is already tender 
should be broiled, as long-continued cooking in water, at a 
moderate temperature, is necessary to make tough meat tender. 

(2 and 3) In broiling, one side at a time is exposed to 
the heat. As the meat is heated the juice begins to flow, and 
soon rises to the upper surface, where it appears in drops. 
If the meat is then turned to cook this surface (as in Experi- 
ment 2), the juice will drop into the fire and be lost. There- 
fore, in broiling, to prevent the juice from escaping, the meat 
should be held close to the heat and be turned frequently, so 
that both surfaces may be seared as quickly as possible, and 
thus form a coating which will keep the juice in the meat. 
As soon as the meat is seared on both sides, it should be held 
farther away from the heat, that the inside may be cooked at 
a lower temperature and thus be kept juicy. Meat for broiling 
should not be too thick, as the intense heat required would burn 
the outside before the inside could be cooked. 

Note. — Meat appears to become thicker as it broils. This is due to 
the changing of the water in the meat to steam, which expands and 
causes the meat to become plump. If even moderate cooking is con- 
tinued too long, the fibers w'ill shrink and thus allow the steam to escape, 
and cause the meat to shrivel and dry. Meat should therefore be re- 
moved from the heat while plump, and before it begins to shrivel. 

Tender portions of beef, mutton, and lamb, and some kinds 
of game, are suitable for broilin<^-. Tripe, bacon, and small 
birds, as young chickens, etc., small fish, lobsters, and oysters 



2^d> A COURSE IX lIOUSKIIOr.l) ARTS 

may also be broiled. Pork and veal should not be l)roiled, as 
they need very thorough cooking. 

Meat for steak should be cut "across the grain," when 
possible, in slices from three-fourths of an inch to an inch and 
a half in thickness. Each slice should be of uniform thickness, 
in order that it may be evenly cooked. 

Very lean meat will be improved in flavor and will be more 
juicy if rubbed with melted fat before cooking. Fat from the 
meat, butter, or salad oil may be used for this purpose. 

The fire for broiling should be very hot. There should be 
a bed of clear, red-hot coals : therefore the fire should be pre- 
])ared some time before it will be needed. A small quantity of 
charcoal or coke added to a dull fire will soon kindle to redness, 
and will make an excellent fire for broiling. The dampers of 
the stove should be open during the broiling, in order that the 
smoke, etc., may be carried to the chimney. 

The time for broiling \\\\\ vary, according to the heat of 
the fire, the thickness and the temperature of the meat. Steak 
an inch thick will usually require about 6 to 8 minutes; if 
thoroughly chilled, more time will be needed. 

If meat is in danger of burning on the outside before the 
center is cooked, it will be better to complete the cooking by 
j^lacing it on a dish in a moderate oven for a few minutes. 

Broiled meat, etc., should be served as soon as cooked, 
therefore everything to be served with it should be prepared 
beforehand. The platter and plates should be warmed and the 
seasoning at hand, that there mav be no delav. 

Broiled Steak 
Heat the broiler, and grease it to keep the meat from stick- 
ing. Remove extra fat and wipe meat with a damp cloth. 
Place meat in the broiler with the fat edge, if any, nearer to 



MEAT 239 

the handle. 1 1 old broiler as close to the lire as possible. Turn 
it every 10 seconds until both sides are seared, then raise 
broiler a few inches above the lire. Turn occasionally until the 
meat is cooked. Place on a hot platter, season with pepper and 
salt, and serve immediately. If butter is used, it may be rubbed 
to a cream and the salt and pepper mixed with it before adding 
to the steak. A few drops of lemon juice or vinegar and a little 
fine-choi)j)ed j)arsley added to the creamed butter, etc., will 
make an agreeable variety. 

Note. — When broiled under gas, meat need not be turned every 
10 seconds ; complete the cooking of one side before turning meat. 
When meat is broiled under gas, a smaller pan placed in the large oven 
])an will catch any melted fat and be easier to wash. 

The heat for cooking steak in the broiling oven can be utilized for 
baking in the upper oven at the same time. 

To make Baking Powder Biscuit : Sift together 2 c. flour, 4 t. baking 
powder, and j t. salt. Add i tb. lard or other fat, using a fork to mi.x 
ingredients thoroughly. Add milk or water to make a dough soft as can 
be handled — about ? c. Turn mixture on a well-floured board until 
floured on all sides. Pat lightly until i inch thick. Dip biscuit cutter 
into flour each time before cutting biscuit. Place biscuit close together 
on a floured or greased pan and bake in a hot oven 10 to 15 minutes. 

Pan-Broiled Chops 

Heat the frying pan very hot. Trim the chops, remove fat, 
and wipe the meat with a damp cloth. Put chops in the frying 
pan. When one side is seared, turn and sear the other ; then 
cook the inside more slowly. Turn the chops frequently, but 
do not pierce them with a fork when turning. Cook from 6 to 
10 minutes, according to thickness of chops. If necessary, stand 
the chops in the pan so that the edges may be cooked. Season 
with salt and pepper, arrange on hot dishes, and serve at once. 



240 A C(JURSE IN HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

Chopped Meat 

Chopping meat is one of the principal methods of making 
tough meat tender, since chopping divides it finely and thus 
cuts the connective tissue. Chopped meats may be cooked 
quickly and made into many palatable dishes. For example, 
chopped raw meat may be cooked with water or milk for a short 
time, then thickened with flour and butter, or fat of the meat, 
and different seasonings added. This may be served on toast, 
or with a border of cooked rice, macaroni, or mashed potatoes. 
If preferred, the chopped meat may be formed into one flat piece 
an inch thick, and broiled and served as steak. 

Hamburg Steak 

Use lean beef from the round and a very little fat. Chop 
the meat fine, or run twice through a meat chopper, and season 
with salt and pepper and a few drops of onion juice, if liked. 
Form the meat into small cakes about J inch thick by pressing 
together i^cntly. Cook in a well-greased broiler or a hot frying 
])an, and sear on both sides as quickly as possible to prevent 
juice from escaping; tlien lower the heat and cook until brown 
on l)oth sides. Put them on a warm platter and place in a 
moderate oven for 5 minutes. A piece of bacon rind used to 
grease the pan will give the meat additional flavor. If prepared 
for an invalid, the meat may be scraped instead of chopped. 
A few slices of bacon chopped with beef adds to the flavor. 
Neck pieces, flank, and tough ends from steaks are often used 
instead of round. 

, Beef Juice 

Use round steak, about i inch thick. Prepare only as much 
juice as will be required for immediate use. Heat the broiler. 
Wipe the meat and place in the broiler. Mold the broiler a few 



MEAT 241 

inches from the fire and turn frequently until the meat is heated 
through, not cooked. Cut through the meat two or three times 
with a sharp knife, and press out the juice with a meat press 
or a lemon squeezer into a heated cup. Serve at once with or 
without salt. All utensils employed in making beef juice should 
be scrupulously clean, and when possible the parts which come 
in contact with the meat should be allowed to stand in boiling 
water 10 minutes or more before using. When pressed out by 
means of a screw press, this beef juice is a very concentrated 
liquid food. 

Reheating Meat 

Care should be taken not to overheat meat which has been 
already cooked. Cook only long enough to heat it thoroughly, 
as further cooking will harden the meat and render it less 
readily digestible. Meat which has been underdone may be 
cooked longer when warmed over. Cold cooked meat may be 
reheated by itself, or in combination with vegetables, as potatoes, 
tomatoes, etc. ; rice, macaroni, bread or cracker crumbs, etc., 
may also be used. 

To prepare for reheating, remove tough membrane, gristle, 
skin, bones, and extra fat. Chop the meat, or cut it into thin 
slices or small pieces, that it may be heated through more 
quickly. Dififerent kinds of meat may be used together. Aleat 
which has been strained from beef tea or soup may also be used, 
combined with meat which has not had the flavor extracted, 
or with vegetables. 

Cover the gristle, bones, etc., with cold water and cook 
slowly for several hours, as they contain nutritive material 
which can be extracted in no other way. Additional flavor may 
be given by adding onions or other vegetables. The strained 
liquid may be used in making gravies, sauces, etc. As more or 



242 A COURSE IN HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

less seasoning has usually been added to cooked meat, no exact 
rule can be given; therefore it is better to season it to taste 
when reheated. 

Minced Meat on Toast 

Prepare the toast, arrange on a hot platter, and keep hot. 
Remove gristle, fat, etc., from cold cooked meat. Chop the 
meat fine, measure it, and put it into a saucepan ; add ^ c. of 
gravy for each cup of meat. Season to taste with salt, pepper, 
and, if liked, with chopped or grated onion, a few drops of 
onion juice, or a little Worcestershire sauce. Grated nutmeg 
may be added to lamb or mutton, if liked. Place saucepan over 
the heat and stir until meat is heated. Pour over the hot toast 
and serve at once. The toast may be buttered or not, as pre- 
ferred. A double boiler is useful when a small quantity of meat 
is to be reheated. 

French Hash or Cottage Pie 

Prepare the meat as directed for Minced Meat on Toast, and 
put it into a baking dish with a layer of mashed potatoes or 
bread crumbs in the bottom ; then add meat, gravy, and season- 
ing. Cover the top with a thick layer of well-seasoned mashed 
potatoes. Use a fork to form the potatoes into a mound, with 
the highest point in the center. If the fork is first dipped into 
melted fat, the potato will brown more quickly. Bake on the 
grate of a hot oven, or under the flame of broiling oven, until 
the potatoes are slightly browned on top. More gravy will be 
needed than for the meat on toast, as part of it will be absorbed 
by the potatoes. Cooked rice or macaroni may be substituted 
for mashed potatoes. 



MEAT 243 



Hash 



Prepare meat as for Cottage Pie. Use equal parts of mashed 
or fine-chopped potatoes and meat ; mix together and moisten 
with gravy, water, or milk. Allow from i t. to i tb. of liquid 
for each cup of hash. Use more liquid if the hash is very dry. 
Season to taste. Other vegetables besides potatoes maybe added. 
Heat the fat in a frying pan until smoking hot. Use from 
I t. to I tb. or more, according to the quantity of hash. Spread 
the hash evenly over the bottom of the pan, cover, and place 
where the hash will heat slowly until a brown crust is formed 
on the bottom. Slip a knife under the hash, fold over double, 
and turn out on a warm platter. The hash may be formed into 
small cakes, rubbed over the top with melted butter, or other 
fat, placed on a buttered baking pan, and heated on the grate 
of a rather hot oven until slightly browned on the top. The 
materials used in making hash may also be heated in a saucepan, 
with enough milk or gravy to keep from burning. Stir until 
heated thoroughly and serve at once. 

Meat Turnover 

Chopped cooked meat, either alone or combined w^ith cooked 
potato or rice, may be used. Season well with salt, pepper, 
onion juice, etc. Roll biscuit dough thin and cut into circles 
about the size of a saucer. Place 2 tb. or more of the mixture 
in the center of one-half the circle of dough, fold over the other 
half, first moistening the edges with milk or water, and pinch 
edges closely together. If desired, tops may be brushed over 
with Ggg yolk before cooking. Bake 20 to 30 minutes in a hot 
oven. A brown or tomato sauce may be served with the turn- 
overs. (For biscuit dough, see p. 239.) 



-44 A COURSI-: IX household arts 

Scalloped Meat 

Cut lean meat into thin slices or small pieces. Use bread 
or cracker crumbs for the middle layers, or cooked rice or 
macaroni. Arrange as directed for Scalloped Dishes (p. i66). 
Gravy, water, milk, or tomato sauce may be used to moisten. 
Season to taste and bake until top is brown. Beef or ham or 
bacon fat may be used with crumbs instead of butter. Scalloped 
meat is attractive served in ramekins, or other such small dishes, 
for individual service. 

Meat Warmed in Gravy 
Prepare meat as for Scalloped Meat. Use meat gravy, white 
sauce, or tomato sauce. Put gravy into a saucepan or double 
boiler to heat. Add the meat, season to taste, and serve as soon 
as thoroughly heated. To give variety, a little curry powder 
may be used to season. Garnish dish with toast cut into points. 

Meat Pie Crust 

2 c. cold meat cut in small i c. mashed potato 

pieces | to J c. flour 

2 or 3 boiled potatoes cut i tb. butter, or other 

into cubes fat 

i c. each of cooked carrot Salt and pepper 

and onion sliced i t. baking powder, if 

Salt and pepper to taste desired 

Soup stock, or water, or 

gravy to moisten 
Put meat and vegetables into a baking dish; add gravy, 
stock, or water, and seasoning. Mix salt, pepper, and fat with 
the mashed potatoes, then work in the flour gradually until stiff 
enough to be rolled. Shape to cover dish, and bake 20 to 30 
minutes in a hot oven. 



CHAPTER XIV 
Fats and Oils 

Fats are solid at ordinary temperature, while oils are liquid. 
Though differing more or less in appearance and flavor, the 
fats and oils used as food do practically the same work in 
the body, their chief use being to serve as fuel for supplying 
energy. 

The carbohydrates (starch, sugar) also yield energy, but 
fat will produce more than twice as much as the same weight 
of starch or sugar. The carbohydrates, however, yield their 
energy more quickly, and are a less expensive source than fats. 

The fats of food are obtained from various sources, both 
animal and vegetable. Meat, fish, milk, and eggs are the prin- 
cipal sources of animal fats. The vegetable fats are obtained 
chiefly from fruits, nuts, and seeds. 

The fats commonly used are butter, lard, dripping-, suet, 
marrow, and chicken fat ; combinations of different fats in 
cottolene, oleomargarine, butterine, and other commercial prep- 
arations, etc. ; vegetable fats and oils, as cocoanut butter, sweet 
or olive oil, cottonseed oil, corn oil, etc. 

It is believed that the fats which melt readily are the most 
digestible. 

Butter is the most digestible as well as the most costly fat. 
It will spoil quickly unless kept cold and out of contact with 
light and air. It also absorbs odors readily, and should there- 
fore be covered closely and kept in the refrigerator away from 
strong-smelling foods. When clarified and thus freed from the 
traces of casein and the water it usually contains, butter can 
be kept indefinitely. 

245 



246 A COURSE IX HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

Lard is the semi-solid fat obtained by melting and straining 
the fat from various portions of the body of a hog. The best, 
or "leaf lard," is obtained from the layers or folds of fat within 
the body called "leaves." These are nearly pure fat, with a 
very small amount of membrane. (See grades of lard, p. 219.) 

Beef suet is the hard fat which lies about the kidneys and 
loins. Freed from membrane and chopped fine, it is used as 
''shortening" in puddings, etc. 

Marrozv is the soft fat found in the cavities of bones, 
especially the shin bones. Its flavor is more delicate than that 
of suet, while flank fat is more delicate than either. 

Dripping originally was the name applied to the fat which 
dripped from meat when roasting before an open fire, a 
"dripping pan" being placed beneath to catch the fat as it fell. 
As used at present, dripping means the clear fat which is 
obtained when beef fat alone, or mixed with other fats, cooked 
or uncooked, has been melted and strained, and thus freed 
from impurities. It is also called clarified fat. 

Remnants of fat from meat, or the fat skimmed from soups, 
gravies, or the water in which meat has been cooked, may be 
clarified. Fat which has a decided flavor, as that from ham, 
etc., should be clarified and kept by itself, and used only with 
food in which the flavor will be agreeable. Dripping may be 
used for frying, for basting meat, for greasing pans, etc., 
also as shortening in bread, pastry, etc. Fat from fried 
sausages, ham, bacon, and from roasted meats may be used 
with vegetables. 

The fat for dripping is usually cut or chopped into small 
pieces, to allow the fat to separate more readily from the 
membrfine which incloses it. A\^ater added keeps the fat from 
burning. As the water becomes hot, the steam carries off 
gaseous impurities, and thus aids in clarifying. Slices of raw 



FATS AND OILS 24/ 

potato are sometimes heated with the fat. As the particles of 
sohd material present cling to the slices of potato, they are 
therefore thought to aid the clarifying process. The mixture 
should be stirred occasionally, to allow any water entangled 
among the scraps of fat to evaporate. Since fat can reach a 
temperature much higher than that of boiling water, a drop 
of water which comes in contact with very hot fat will be 
changed into steam so suddenly that the fat will spatter in all 
directions. The heating should be continued until the bubbling 
has ceased, showing that the water has all evaporated. 

When the scraps are light brown and crisp, the kettle should 
be removed from the heat. The fat should not be strained until 
slightly cooled, as the heat of very hot fat is sufficient to melt 
the solder on tins and is liable to crack dishes. 

Fat may be clarified in the oven. The oven door should be 
left open, to avoid accident should the fat be forgotten, as the 
fat may burst into flame if the oven becomes very hot. 

Note. — The characteristic flavor and odor of mutton are said to 
have their origin in the fat, being due to a mixture of well-known fatty 
acids. If this characteristic mutton flavor is due to volatile fatty acids, 
we can understand why it is lessened by cooking with water, since such 
acids are volatile in steam, says Fanners' Bulletin §26. Cooking the fat 
with a little vinegar or stronger acids seems to lessen the characteristic 
flavor somewhat, though perhaps it is only masked. 

The rather general belief that all kinds of mutton fat are unsuitable 
for cooking purposes, and the consequent wastefulness entailed, led to 
investigations in the United States Office of Experiment Stations, the 
results of which seem to show that fats taken from different parts 
of the mutton carcass cannot be thus classed indiscriminately, any 
more than fats from different animals can be so classed. For example, 
the melting point of mutton tallow is usually given as between 111° and 
122° F., and the corresponding pork fat as hetween 97° and 115° F. ; 
while that of beef tallow or suet is given as between 107° and 120° F. 
The melting point of fat from different parts of the same animal differs 
also. The melting point of mutton kidney fat or tallow was found to 



248 A COURSI-: IX HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

be 122° F. ; that of fat from the "covering" of the leg, 114° F. ; and 
that of fat from the interior of the lean portion of the leg which was 
obtained from the liquid in which a leg of mutton was boiled, 107° F. 
As a matter of fact, the fat from the leg was found to be satisfactory 
for many purposes, such as in the preparation of vegetables and to saute. 
The kidney fat being too hard for ordinary purposes, it was mixed with 
soft fats, such as lard and beef fat, and also vegetable oils. "When 
economy as well as flavor is taken into consideration, the best results 
may be said to have been obtained from the mixture of two parts of 
mutton suet with one of lard ; ... it was used satisfactorily for deep 
fat frying, for 'shortening' foods with distinctive flavor, and for many 
other purposes. It gave fair results even in the preparation of baking 
powder biscuits." — Farmers' Bulletin 526. 



Dripping or Clarified Fat (i) 

Chop or cut fat into small pieces and put into a saucepan 
or a kettle half filled with cold water. Heat slowly. Stir occa- 
sionally, and cook until the scraps are light brown and the fat 
has ceased to bubble. Remove saticepan from the heat. Let 
stand 5 minutes, then strain. Place strainer over a tin pail or 
dish. Spread cheesecloth over the strainer and pour in the fat. 
The dripping will be fine-grained if the fat is cooled quickly 
and when nearly sohd is beaten with a fork until white and 
creamy. A double boiler is useful if only a small amount of 
fat is to be clarified, as there is no danger of burning unless 
water in the lower part boils away. 

German Method (2) 

Cut beef suet in small pieces, cover with cold water, and let 
stand several hours, changing the water once. Drain and put 
fat into an iron or agate kettle, adding \ c. milk for each pound 
of suet. Cook very slowly imtil the sound of boiling ceases. 
When partly cooled, strain. This may be substituted in many 
recipes for a portion of the butter required in cooking. 



FATS AXU OILS 249 

Method 3 

Two parts of uncooked mutton fat and one part leaf lard 
may be put through a meat grinder and heated in a double boiler 
with milk until the fat is thoroughly melted. Strain and cool, 
then remove cake of fat and keep in a cool place ; may be 
used alone or with butter in preparing vegetables, etc. 

Clarified Butter 

Heat the butter slowdy in a thick pan, to prevent burning. 
When it ceases to bubble, strain through double cheesecloth 
into a bottle or jar. If kept tightly corked, in a cool place, it 
will remain sweet for an indefinite period. 

Leaf Lard 

Remove tough membrane and cut the fat into small pieces. 
Heat slowly in an iron or agate kettle, or in double boiler. 
When melted, strain, and keep in a cool place, covered. 

Clarifying Fat from Cooked Meat 

Pour boiling water over the fat, boil thoroughly, then set 
it away to cool. When cold, remove the solid layer of fat and 
scrape off any impurity from the bottom, li necessary, repeat 
process two or three times, or until a cake of clean, white fat 
is obtained. 

Savory Drippings 

Add to 2 c. of drippings from fat meat a small onion (left 
whole), a few leaves of summer savory and thyme, a teaspoon- 
ful of salt, and a little pepper. Strain and keep covered, and 
in a cool place. 



CHAPTER XV 
Fish 

Fish is similar in composition to meat, the chief nutritive 
ingredients being protein and fat. Fish may, therefore, be used 
as a substitute for meat. In general, the fiesh of fish contains 
less fat and more water than meat ; salmon, however, is more 
similar in composition to meat than any other fish. There is 
also a smaller proportion of extractives or flavoring substances 
in fish than in meat, while the amount of gelatin-yielding 
material is larger. Fish also contains mineral matter. 

Fish may be classed, according to the amount of fat con- 
tained, as "fat" or "lean." In general, the fish having dark- 
colored flesh are fat or oily, as salmon, herring, shad, mackerel, 
eels, etc. ; the fish with white flesh, as the cod, haddock, halibut, 
etc., have little fat except in the liver. 

Fish containing a large proportion of fat is less digestible 
than the lean varieties ; the latter, therefore, are more suitable 
for invalids. Drying, salting, smoking, and pickling harden 
the fibers and render fish less readily digestible. 

The distinctive flavor of salted and smoked fishes will often 
make palatable dishes which contain only small quantities of the 
fish, such as creamed smoked halibut, creamed codfish, or 
scalloped fish, etc. 

While the appetizing flavor of salted or smoked fish like 
codfish, smoked herrings, or finnan haddie is liked by many, 
the nutritive value is not always appreciated. In this connec- 
tion, the Y car-Book of the Department of Agriculture for ipio 
states : "A quart of milk thickened with flour and mixed with 
one-half pound dried fish (codfish or finnan haddie) makes a 

250 



FISH 251 

compound which contains more protein than a pound of round 
steak and as much as one and one-half pounds sirloin steak. 
The addition of hard-boiled egg, which is a conimon practice, 
still further increases the protein value. Two eggs would bring 
the food value up to that of about one and one- fourth pounds 
round steak or about one and one-half pounds sirloin steak. 
The fish dish would serve more persons than the steak and 
cost less." 

Canned fisJi should be removed from the can as soon as 
opened, because there is reason to believe that harmful com- 
pounds are formed by the combined action of the oxygen of 
the air and the contents of the can with the coating of tin. 

Canned fish, also fish which has been frozen and then 
thawed, should be used as soon afterwards as possible, being 
particularly liable to spoil. 

In fresh fish the gills are red, the flesh firm, the eyes bright 
and full, and there is no unpleasant odor. When the flesh of 
fish can be crushed by gentle pressure between the fingers, 
or when the scales are dry or easily loosened, it should not 
be eaten, as poisonous substances are sometimes formed in fish 
which is no longer fresh. Another test is made by putting the 
fish into water: if the fish sinks, it is fresh; if it floats, it is not 
fresh, and should not be used. 

The methods of cooking fish are similar to those used in 
cooking meat, some slight variations being necessary, owing 
to differences in the form, the texture, etc. The muscle fibers 
of fish are shorter and coarser, and there is less connective 
tissue, which, being more readily dissolved than that of meat, 
causes fish to break very easily. , 

Cold water will extract the juice of fish as w^ell as of meat. 
The juice of fish may also, to a certain extent, be retained by 
plunging the fish into boiling water. The water should be just 



252 A COURSE IN HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

below the boiling point when the fish is put in, as the motion 
of boiling water tends to break the fish. The temperature of 
the water should then be lowered, and the tish cooked until the 
flesh will separate easily from the bone. From 10 to 12 minutes 
should be allowed for each pound, and a longer time for thick 
pieces. Fish should always be thoroughly cooked, as danger- 
ous parasites are sometimes present, which are destroyed by 
cooking. 

Fish Cooked in Water 

Thick pieces of salmon or halibut or a whole haddock may 
be used. Remove head and tail. Wipe inside and outside of 
fish thoroughly with a cloth wrung out of cold water. Have 
ready a large kettle or saucepan containing salted, boiling water, 
to which one tablespoonful of vinegar may be added. Tie fish 
in cheesecloth and lower it into the water. Place kettle where 
water will keep very hot, but will not boil. Cook until the flesh 
will separate easily from the bones. Lift the cloth carefully, 
drain, and place fish on a hot platter. The skin may be removed. 
Serve hot with a sauce. 

To improve the flavor, one-half cup chopped or sliced carrot 
and onion, and a stalk of celery or a few celery leaves, one or 
two cloves and a few peppercorns may be added to the water 
in which fish is to be cooked. 

Dra"wn Butter Sauce 

(J^or Boiled FisJi) 

2 tb. butter \ t. salt 

3 tl). flour \ ssp. pepper 

\\ a. water from fish 

Combine ingredients as in making white sauce. For ^^^ 
sauce, chop or slice one hard-cooked ^^^ and add to sauce. 



FISH 253 

Creamed Fish 

Separate bones and skin from cooked fish. Heat the fish 
in thick white sauce. When fish is hot stir into the sauce an 
Qgg beaten with one tablespoon ful of milk, and let stand 
one minute before turning it into the serving dish. Serve plain 
or on toast. 

Fish Hash 

Combine equal parts of mashed potato and cooked fish. 
Season to taste and brown in smoking hot fat, as directed for 
Meat Hash. 

Fish Cakes 

Make as directed for hash ; form into flattened cakes or 
balls ; roll in flour and brown on both sides in hot fat. 

Scalloped Fish 

Prepare according to directions for scalloped dishes, using 
thin white sauce to moisten. Bake until crumbs on the top are 
brown. 

Fish Chowder 

2 lb. cod or haddock 4 potatoes 

1 qt. cold water 2 c. hot milk 

2 slices salt pork 2 tb. butter 

I onion, sliced Salt and pepper 

Crackers 

Wipe fish inside and outside with cloth wrung out of cold 
water. Remove head, skin, and bones ; put them into a sauce- 
pan, cover with cold water, and heat to boiling point. Wash, 
pare, and slice the potatoes, and parboil 5 minutes. Fry the 
pork in the kettle in which chowder is to be cooked. When 
crisp, remove scraps and add the onion to the fat and cook until 



254 A COURSE IN HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

light brown. Drain the potatoes and add them to the onions. 
Strain the water from the head and bones into the kettle and 
boil 15 minutes. Cut fish into two-inch pieces, add to chowder, 
and cook 10 minutes. Add the hot milk, butter, and seasoning, 
and crackers if desired. Heat to boiling point and serve. Water 
may be used instead of milk, and more pork instead of butter. 

Broiled Fish 

Small fish may be cleaned and broiled whole, or they may 
be split down the back, the halves being separated or not, as 
preferred. Large fish are cut into slices for broiling. 

For broiling, all fish should be wiped as dry as possible and 
sprinkled with salt and pepper. Lean fish should be rubbed 
with melted butter or other fat, and the broiler should be well 
greased. 

The general rules for broiling fish are similar to those for 
broiling meat. The outside should be seared as quickly as 
possible by holding the broiler close to the heat, and the inside 
should then be cooked more slowly by holding the broiler 
farther away. Fish should be broiled on the flesh side first, 
then turned and cooked on the skin side long enough to make 
it crisp. Slices of fish should be turned frequently while broil- 
ing, and all fish should be well done and served as soon as 
cooked. 

Butter Dressing for Fish 

2 tb. butter Few grains of cayenne 

i t. salt I t. fine-chopped parsley 

i ssp. pepper i t. lemon juice 

Put the butter into a bowl and rub it until creamy. Add salt, 
pepper, and parsley, then the lemon juice very slowly. The 
parsley may be omitted. Serve with broiled fish. 



CHAPTER XVI 
Milk, Milk Products, and Legumes 

Milk 

The two great sources of the food of man are the animal 
and vegetable kingdoms. 

We have seen that in foods of vegetable origin the nutrients 
most abundant are carbohydrates — starches and sugars. The 
amount of protein in vegetable foods is small, as a rule, the 
chief exception being the legumes, and to a certain extent 
the cereals also. 

The principal foods of animal origin — meat, fish, eggs, 
milk, and cheese — are the substantial or the so-called ''hearty" 
foods, the word ''hearty" being used in the sense of strength- 
giving, nourishing, or satisfying foods. In fact, generally 
speaking, these foods, or some combination of them, form the 
substantial dish, or, as we might say, the "nucleus," of an ordi- 
nary meal, the bulk of the meal consisting of some form of 
starchy food, such as bread, potatoes, etc. 

If a piece of ordinary meat be examined, it will be evident 
that the lean (muscular tissue or flesh) and the fat are the chief 
edible portions; and since we have learned that the basis or 
foundation of all muscular tissue or flesh is protein, it is plain 
that protein and fat are the chief nutrients of meat. The 
same is true of animal foods in general, of which meat may be 
regarded as a type. 

Milk, however, occupies a position almost alone among 
animal foods, as it contains, in addition to the protein and fat, 
an appreciable amount of carbohydrate also. The value of milk 

255 



256 A COURSE IN HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

as food will be better understood if the ingredients of which 
it is composed are shown by means of a few simple experiments. 

Experiments to show the ingredients of milk: 

( 1 ) Allow milk to stand until thick and sour ; remove the layer 
of cream which will be found on the top. Place a drop of cream on a 
piece of paper. The grease spot on the paper will show that the cream 
is fat. 

(2) After removing the cream, strain the milk through double 
cheesecloth placed in a strainer over a bowl, and let stand until well 
drained. The thick, white solid portion, or curd, left in the cloth is 
casein, the chief protein of milk, and the liquid which drains through 
is zcJiey. Whey consists principally of zvater, having dissolved in it the 
soluble ingredients of the milk, which can be separated from it by suit- 
able treatment. 

Comparing the amount of curd with the amount of whey, it is 
evident that water is the most abundant constituent of milk. 
Reserve the curd and whey for further experiment. 

(3) Strain a portion of the whey through a piece of fine cloth or 
filter paper until perfectly clear ; divide it into two parts. Heat one 
part to the boiling point, and when cool pour it into a glass ; examine 
and compare with the unheated portion. The portion that has been 
heated \. ill be full of fine, white solid particles, which will soon sink to 
the bottom of the liquid. This white solid is albumin, another protein, 
which resembles in its properties the albumin of an e§,^. The amount 
of albumin in milk is, however, very small in proportion to the casein. 
Albumin differs from casein in not curdling when the milk sours and 
in remaining in solution (or dissolved) in the whey until it is heated. 

(4) Strain the whey which has been heated until perfectly clear 
and free from particles of albumin. Pour the clear liquid into a double 
boiler containing water in the lower part, and heat until the whey 
evaporates, leaving a solid sugary mass. 

(5) Fiace a small portion of the sugary substance on an old spoon 
or on a piece of sheet iron, and heat until the sugar is burned, leaving 
a black charred mass. Notice the odor of burned sugar. Milk sugar, 
or lactose, occurs only in milk; it is less sweet and less soluble than 
ordinary sugar. 

(6) Place the spoon or sheet iron containing the charred sugar 
directly over the gas flame, and heat until nothing remains but a very 
small amount of grayish white powder which the most intense heat will 
not consume. This powder is the mineral matter, or "ash," of the milk. 



MILK, MILK PRODUCTS, AND LEGUMES 257 

We find milk, then, to consist principally of water combined 
with other substances which can be separated in solid form 
from the liquid or watery portion. These substances are, 
therefore, sometimes called ''milk solids." Milk solids consist 
of (i) casein and a very little albumin; (2) fat or cream; 
(3) sugar; and (4) mineral matter. The proportion of solids 
in the milk from different cows varies greatly, but the average 
composition is as follows : 

Per cent 
Protein (casein and a small amount of albumin) 2>-2> 
Fat (cream) 4.0 

Carboh\'drate (sugar of milk or lactose) 5.0 

Mineral matter or ash 0.7 

Water 87.0 

Milk is the sole food for the young of many animals because 
it contains all the elements needed for the complete nourish- 
ment of the young of the animals which produce it : protein, 
which furnishes material for building up the body and keeping 
it in repair ; fat and carbohydrate, to supply fuel to keep it warm 
and give it energy or the power to do its work ; mineral matter, 
to build up the bones and for various other purposes ; and zvater. 

The mineral matter of milk, though small in amoimt, is more 
abundant in comparison with the other nutrients than in any 
other common food, and it is easy to see why this should be 
the case in a food designed for young animals. 

Milk is often called a "perfect food," but there are three 
reasons why it cannot be so considered, at least for healthy 
adults, although life can be supported for a long time on milk 
alone. First, the proportion of water is so large that great 
quantities of milk (four or five quarts a day) would have to 
be taken in order to obtain a sufficient amount of the other 
ingredients. Second, these ingredients are not present in the 
proper proportions ; the protein, for example, being in rather 



258 A COURSE IN HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

large quantities as compared with the fats and carbohydrates. 
A third reason is that a certain amount of waste or bulky 
material in the food seems necessary to assist the action of the 
digestive organs, and this milk alone would not supply. Milk, 
however, forms a valuable addition to the diet, and for persons 
in ill health and for children it may be safely said that no other 
single food is of so much value. 

Although milk is commonly believed to be a nutritious food, 
it seems generally to be regarded merely as a beverage similar 
to tea or coffee, rather than as being in itself an important food. 
This is owing partly, no doubt, to the fact that it is a liquid 
rather than a solid. For example, milk is frequently used as a 
beverage without lessening the amount of meat or other pro- 
tein food served at a meal ; whereas when milk is used plenti- 
fully, whether as a beverage or in custards, white sauce, etc., 
a smaller allowance of meat or eggs is required. 

Milk is one of our most valuable foods as regards both its 
food value and its comparative cost. Few of our common foods 
furnish a given amount of nourishment so cheaply as does 
milk. Its ''food elements" being in solution, they are more 
easily and completely digested by both children and adults, 
while a considerable portion of other foods is not digestible 
and cannot, therefore, be made use of by the body. 

That milk could often be used as a substitute for meat or 
for eggs is evident from the fact that a quart of milk supplies 
practically as much of both protein and energy as three- fourths 
of a pound of beef of average composition or eight eggs, and 
can usually be bought for less money ; or to state it in smaller 
amounts, a cup of milk is equal in total nourishment to three 
ounces of lean beef or two eggs. {Farmers' Bulletin 413.) 

Milk from which none of the ingredients have been sepa- 
rated is known as "idiole milk," while that from which the 



MILK, MILK PRODUCTS, AND LEGUMES 259 

cream has been removed or "skimmed" is called "skimmed 
milk." 

Skimmed milk contains nearly all the protein and other 
nutritive ingredients of ** whole milk" except the cream or fat. 
It might, therefore, often be substituted for whole milk in cook- 
ing, and less expensive fats added in place of the cream. If 
skimmed milk is bought as such, it should be thoroughly cooked, 
unless it is known to have been produced and handled in a 
cleanly manner. Milk which has been received from dealers 
and allowed to stand long enough for the cream to rise should 
probably never be given to children under two years of age, 
for reasons which will be mentioned later ; but for older people, 
the mere fact of its being old need not be taken into consider- 
ation. So far as its nutritive value is concerned, skimmed milk 
has a trifle more protein, volume for volume, than whole milk. 

If skimmed milk is allowed to stand until sour and is then 
churned or beaten until the curd is broken into small particles, 
it makes a wholesome drink similar to buttermilk. Much of 
the commercial buttermilk is thus made, a little cream being 
sometimes added. 

The fat of milk is present in the form of minute globules, 
and being the lightest part, the fat tends to rise to the top when 
milk is allowed to stand. The fat, or cream, when removed, 
carries with it usually more or less of the milk. When cream 
is churned or shaken vigorously, the fat globules cling together 
and form little masses of butter, which separate from the liquid 
portion, which is then called "buttermilk." 

Butter is sometimes made from fresh, sweet cream, but 
more frequently from cream which has been allowed to sour 
or "ripen" — that is, to undergo changes by which a different 
flavor or aroma is given to the butter produced from the cream. 
This ripening process is now known to be due to the action of 



260 A COURSI-: IX HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

certain kinds of bacteria. Formerly the cream was left to itself 
to ripen, but the flavor of the butter varied greatly, and the 
delicious flavor of "June butter" was possible only when the 
cows fed upon the tender grass at that season. At present, 
the desired flavor can be given to butter at any time, because 
the bacteria producing this aroma have been separated and 
cultivated by themselves, forming what is known as a "pure 
culture." These bacteria are kept growing under favorable 
conditions, and under the name of "butter cultures" are sold 
for the purpose of ripening cream. 

Souring of Milk. The souring of milk is caused by the 
presence in it of a group of organisms known as the lactic acid 
bacteria. If these special kinds of bacteria could be kept out 
of milk, it would never sour. The lactic acid bacteria act upon 
the sugar of milk (lactose) and produce lactic (or milk) acid. 
When enough of the milk sugar has been broken down and 
sufficient acid has been formed, the milk tastes acid or sour, 
and later curdles. The action of these bacteria is hastened by 
gentle heat, and therefore milk will sour quickly if kept in a 
warm place. It is also due to this fact that milk apparently 
sweet curdles when heated. 

The curdling of milk is due to the precipitation of the casein 
by the action of the lactic acid upon it. Other acids, vinegar, 
for example, added to milk will also precipitate the casein. 

Rennet, a substance prepared from the lining of the calf's 
stomach, will cause the casein of milk to coagulate in the form 
of a solid curd without souring. Coagulated casein, or curd of 
milk, is used for making cheese. 

Note. — The question is likely to arise why sour milk and its 
products are considered safe foods to be eaten raw, while stale sweet 
milk is looked upon with some suspicion unless it has been cooked. 
The reason is that for a long time after the milk is drawn, all the 
bacteria which enter into it increase in number, the increase being more 



MILK, MILK PRODUCTS, AND LEGUMES 26I 

or less rapid, depending chiefly on the temperature at which the milk is 
kept. Some of these bacteria may be of the species that produce disease. 
Finally, however, when milk sours, the harmless lactic-acid bacteria and 
the lactic acid which they produce tend to destroy other microorganisms, 
including the disease-producing bacteria, so that the time comes when 
the harmful bacteria decrease rapidly and the lactic-acid bacteria increase 
rapidly. By the time the milk is sour, it is practically free from bacteria, 
except those of the lactic-acid type. — Fanners' Bulletin 41$, The Care 
of Milk and Its Use in the Home. 

The Care of Milk in the Home 

Milk should be kept clean, cold, and covered. If the milk 
when delivered is clean and unadtilterated, by improper treat- 
ment in the home it may become unfit for food, especially for 
babies. This bad treatment consists ( i ) in placing it in un- 
clean vessels; (2) in exposing it unnecessarily to the air; 

(3) in failing to keep it cold up to the time of using it; and 

(4) in exposing it to flies. 

As milk absorbs odors and collects bacteria whenever it is 
exposed to the air or placed in unclean vessels, the amount 
of contamination will depend largely tipon the condition of 
the utensils and of the air with which the milk comes in contact. 
Milk should, therefore, be kept covered, as the air of even a 
so-called clean room contains many impurities, and especial 
care should be giveil to the washing of all utensils used for 
holding milk. 

The following are selected from directions for the care of 
milk issued by Committees, Commissions, and Health Boards 
of various cities: 

Have the dealer leave the bottles in a cool place, protected 
from the sun and from flies. 

Take in the bottle as soon as possible after it is delivered. 

Wash cap and outside of bottle thoroughly with clean cold 
water, then place on ice. 



262 A COURSE IX IIOUSEIIOr,!) ARTS 

Keep the ice-box clean ; do not put onions, fish, or other 
strong-smeUing foods in the same compartment with milk. 

Do not take milk from ice-box till yon are ready to use it. 

If you have no ice, wrap a cloth wrung out of cold water 
around the bottle or pail, and wet the cloth several times a day ; 
or make a simple ice-box. Punch holes in the bottom of a tin 
pail having a cover. Place the bottle of milk in the center of 
the pail. Pack ice around the bottle, put on the cover, and 
wrap the pail in a blanket, bag, or newspapers ; then put it in 
a pan or in the sink, so it can drain. • 

See that all vessels for holding milk are clean ; use milk 
bottles or milk pails for no other purpose than holding milk. 

Remove cap from milk bottle with a clean special lifter and 
put milk back on ice immediately.* (Any smooth, sharp-pointed 
instrument which can be washed answers the purpose, but 
should be kept for this special use.) If paper cap has been 
punctured, cover bottle with an inverted tumbler. 

An excellent way of serving milk on the table, from the 
sanitary standpoint, is in the original bottle ; in any case, do 
not pour out more than will be used at one meal; but if any 
should be left over, do not pour it back into the bottle. 

If there is a contagious disease in the house, do not return 
any bottles to the milkman except with the knowledge of the 
attending physician and according to directions from him. 

If bottled milk cannot be obtained from the milkman, do 
not leave out all night an uncovered vessel to collect bacteria 
from street dust before milk is put into it. Use a bowl covered 
with a plate, or a covered glass preserve jar (without rubber 
ring). 

*' Loose" milk — that is, milk which is sold from large cans, 
open most of the time and possibly without refrigeration — 
is dangerous and should be avoided. Bottled milk is cleaner, 
but if ''loose" milk must be bought, it should be purchased 



:mii,k, milk products, and lkgumks 263 

from a clean milkman or at a clean store, where the milk is kept 
covered and thoroughly iced. Care should then be taken to 
keep the milk clean and cold when it reaches the home. When 
loose milk must be bought, wash the pail and scald it before 
sending it to the store. Cover the pail before and after the milk 
is put in, to keep out dust, dirt, and flies, and keep the clean 
pail upside down when not in use. 

Do not leave milk on the back of the stove, or on a sunn}- 
window sill, or in any warm place. 

Do not allow any one to drink milk directly from the milk 
bottle or pail. 

Cleaning Milk Utensils 

All milk vessels should be cleaned immediately after using. 
They should be first rinsed with cold or lukewarm w^ater, then 
washed thoroughly in hot water and some cleansing material, 
such as washing soda or soap, added to remove the grease. 
A strong hot solution of washing powder not only removes the 
grease, but is also effective for destroying bacteria, if utensils 
are allowed to stand in it for at least 10 minutes. Rinse utensils 
in boiling water and turn upside down to dry. 

All utensils with which milk comes in contact should be 
rinsed,, washed, and scalded every time they are used. Use 
fresh water ; do not wash them in dish water which has been 
used for washing other utensils or wipe them with an ordinary 
dish towel ; it is better to boil them in clean water and set them 
away unwiped. 

Rennet Custard or Junket 

2 c. milk 2 t. liquid rennet or J junket 

2 tb. sugar tablet 

30 drops vanilla or lemOn extract 

Heat milk until lukezvarni only ; add sugar and flavoring, 
and stir until sugar is dissolved. Add the rennet, pour into dish 



264 A COURSE IN HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

in which it is to be served, and keep in a warm place. Do not 
move the dish until junket is firm. Chill and serve with plain 
or whipped cream and sugar. 

Whipped Cream for Junket 

J c. thick cream 5 tb. powdered sugar 

I c. milk 30 drops vanilla 

INIix the cream and milk and beat until frothy ; add the sugar 
and flavoring. 

Whipped Cream 

Thick cream or thin cream may be used for whipped cream. 
Thick cream usually requires thinning with from one- fourth 
to three- fourths its bulk of milk, according to the use to be 
made of it. If too thick, cream is likely to turn to butter when 
whipped. The sugar and flavoring may be added before or 
after whipping. The cream should be thoroughly chilled and 
kept cold by placing bowl containing it in a pan partly filled 
with broken ice and water, or snow. A whip-churn or a Dover 
Qgg beater may be used for whipping cream, the egg beater 
being better for the heavy cream and the whip-churn for thin. 
Place the bowl of cream in the pan of iced water and beat or 
whip until frothy. The first bubbles are too large, and should 
be stirred into the cream. Continue beating, and when a thick 
layer of froth is formed, skim it off and put into a strainer, 
placed over a bowl, as some cream drains through, which ma}' 
be whipped again. When as much as possible has been whipped, 
it should be three times the original bulk. A bowl which is small 
in diameter, but deep, is better to use for beating, as less will be 
left in the bottom unbeaten. 



MILK, MILK PRODUCTS, AND LEGUMES 265 

Butter 

J c. cream J t. fine salt 

Shake the cream in a wide-mouthed bottle or jar, or put it 
into a small bowl and beat with an tgg beater until the butter 
separates from the liquid portion. Collect the particles of 
butter with a spoon, pressing out as much of the milk as possi- 
ble. Wash the butter in very cold water, changing water until 
clear; put butter into a dry bowl, sprinkle with the salt, and 
work the salt thoroughly into the butter wath a spoon. Form 
butter into a cake or fancy shapes. The salt may be omitted. 
If the cream is too cold, the butter will not separate ; and in cold 
weather the cream should be warmed to 60° or 70° F., or even 
higher, and in some cases a temperature of 80° has been found 
necessary to make butter form. 

Butter Balls 

Small wooden paddles, or ''butter-hands," plain or grooved, 
are used for forming butter into balls or other fancy shapes. 
Le't the butter-hands stand in boiling water for 5 minutes, then 
put them into very cold water and chill thoroughly. Have 
ready a large bowl of cold water. Cut the butter into pieces 
three-fourths of an inch square and drop into the cold water. 
Roll them lightly, one at a time, between the butter-hands until 
of the desired shape. Arrange them on a flat dish and chill. 
Use a small fork or a butter pick in serving them. 

CHEESE 

Cheese is believed to be the oldest of the dairy products 
and the first form in which milk was preserved for future use. 
It is made chiefly from the milk of cows, though that of goats 
and ewes is employed in making certain kinds. Cheese may be 



266 A COURSE IN HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

made from whole milk, from milk to which cream has been 
added, or from skimmed milk. Cheese consists principally of 
the casein and fat of the milk. There are many varieties, the 
differences being due to the kind of milk used, the method of 
coagulation, and the germs concerned in the ripening. The 
milk may be coagulated by allowing it to sour naturally, or by 
adding to it an acid, such as vinegar, or by adding rennet. 
When coagulated by acids, casein carries down with it but little 
fat, making what is called a ''lean" cheese, like some Dutch 
and German cheeses. The curd produced by adding rennet to 
whole milk will contain nearly all of the cream, making a rich 
cheese, and will contain some of the mineral matters of the 
milk also. 

However the curd is formed, it is next pressed to remove 
the zi'liey, the amount of pressure used determining whether the 
cheese will be soft or hard. The soft cheeses do not keep so 
well, being intended for immediate use. After pressure, the 
mass of curd is set aside and kept at a favorable temperature 
to ripen, the time required varying from a comparatively short 
period to three or four years. New flavors are developed and 
the texture of the entire mass is altered during the ripening 
process. 

The ripening of cheese is due chiefly to the action of bacteria 
and molds. The bacteria are present in the milk used, or in the 
air of the place where the cheese is made. In making certain 
kinds of cheese, as Roquefort, molds are allowed to grow on 
bread crumbs, which are then added to the curd, to assist in the 
ripening and add to the flavor. 

Cheese is really condensed milk minus the sugar and mineral 
salts, and is a highly nutritious food, which can to a certain 
extent replace meat. Skimmed milk cheeses are nearly one-half 
protein, while other cheeses average about one-third protein 



MILK, MILK PRODUCTS, AND LEGUMES 267 

and one-third fat, the remaining portions of l^oth kinds being 
principally water, with small amounts of mineral matter. 

"Cheese has nearly twice as much protein, weight for weight, as 
beef of average composition as purchased, and its fuel value is more 
than twice as great. It contains over 25 per cent more protein than the 
same weight of porterhouse steak as purchased, and nearl}^ twice as 
much fat. . . . An ounce of cheese roughly is equivalent to one egg, or 
one glass of milk, or two ounces of meat." — Fanners' Bulletin 487. 

Digestibility. Cheese is believed to be difficult of digestion 
for many, owing partly to the mixture of fat and partly, also, 
because of substances irritating to the stomach which are 
developed during the ripening process. Hard cheeses are more 
digestible than soft ones, because more likely to be thoroughly 
masticated. Any cheese is made more digestible by being finely 
divided, or dissolved and mixed with other foods, as in cooking. 

Note. — Experiments made by the United States Department of 
Nutrition (Bulletin 487) seem to show that when eaten raw, or carefully 
cooked, cheese is as thoroughly digested as other staple foods. The 
Bulletin also states that : " \n common with other fatty foods, cheese 
which has been overheated in cooking is likely to contain burned — that 
is, decomposed — fats. Disturbances from this cause, however, should 
be laid to poor cooking, and not to the composition of this special food." 
It was not apparent from these experiments that the use of potassium 
bicarbonate renders the cheese more digestible, as was formerly sup- 
posed. It does, however, neutralize some of the free fatty acids of the 
cheese, to which are due many of the flavors and odors of cheese, and 
especially of the highly flavored kinds. To some the loss of part of 
the flavor may be an advantage, but to others it would be counted a 
disadvantage. 

The fact that cheese, like fish, meat, and eggs, which it 
resembles in the proportion of protein and fat, contains neither 
starch nor cellulose, suggests that cheese also shotild be com- 
bined with bread, potatoes, and other starchy foods ; and 
because of its concentrated character, the addition of juicy 
fruits and vegetables is desirable, wdien, as it so well may be, 



268 



A COURSE IN HOUSEHOLD ARTS 



cheese is used as a substitute for meat. The large proportion 
of fat in cheese suggests the use of correspondingly small 
amounts of fat in the accompanying dishes, while the softness 
of cheese dishes makes it desirable to serve the harder and 
crisper breads with them. 

The Care of Cheese in the Home 

One of the best ways of keeping cheese which has been cut 
is to wrap it in a slightly damp cloth and then in paper, and 
to keep it in a cool place. To dampen the cloth, sprinkle it with 
water and wring it as dry as possible. It should seem hardly 
damp to the touch. Paraffin paper may be used in place of the 
cloth. When cheese is put in a covered dish, the air should 
never be wholly excluded; for if this is done, it molds more 
readily. 

Cottage Cheese 

Cottage Cheese is made from thick, sour milk, by heating it 
gently until the curd separates, then draining and seasoning. 
Sweet cream or butter are generally added. Or these may be 
omitted and sweet cream poured over the cheese when served. 
Nuts or olives chopped, or caraway seeds, are sometimes added. 
More flavor will be developed if the cheese is allowed to stand 
a few days before using. 

French Cottage Cheese is made without heating, the thick, 
sour milk being poured into earthen molds which have holes 
in the bottom. When the whey is drained out, the cheese is 
chilled and eaten with sweet cream and sugar, and is often 
served with acid fruits, such as currants or strawberries. 

In making cottage cheese, heat the sour milk very slowly 
until lukewarm, or even a little less — about 96° F. — and never 
above 100° F. The lower temperature will give a smoother, 



MILK, AIILK PRODUCTS, AND LEGUMES 269 

softer curd, while overheating will make the curd hard, dry, 
and unpalatable. 

To avoid the danger of overheating, mix a small quantity 
of boiling water with the milk, without further heating. By 
the use of this method part of the acid taste is removed, mak- 
ing the cheese more palatable to some. 

Milk for making cottage cheese should be skimmed. It is 
wasteful to use "whole" milk, because most of the fat drains 
off with the whey, especially if strained while warm. For this 
reason it is better, after the sour milk has been heated, to chill 
it thoroughly before straining. The cream skimmed from the 
top may be added to the cottage cheese instead of sweet cream, 
if desired. 

Cottage Cheese No. i 

I qt. thick sour milk i tb. sweet cream 

J t. salt I t. butter 

Stir the milk thoroughly to break up the curd ; put the milk 
into the upper part of a double boiler containing cold water 
in the lower part. Place on the back of the range or wdiere it 
will heat very slowly. Stir occasionally, and heat until the 
curd separates and the whey looks clear ; then cool. Have 
ready a muslin bag or a piece of cheesecloth wrung out of cold 
water ; hang the bag, or cheesecloth with corners tied together, 
over a bowl or dish to drain, several hours or over night. The 
finer and softer the curd, the longer it needs to drain. Or place 
the cheesecloth in a strainer over a bowd. Let stand until the 
whey ceases to drip, then collect the curd, add salt and cream, 
or butter; add more seasoning, if desired, and mix well. Add 
chopped nuts, olives, etc. Serve plain or form into small balls. 



2/0 A COURSE IN HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

Cottage Cheese No. 2 

I qt. thick sour milk ^ t. salt 

I c. boiling water i tb. cream or i t. butter 

Stir the milk thoroughly, add the boiling water, and stir 
constantly for 2 or 3 minutes ; then let stand until cold. Drain 
and season as in Cottage Cheese No. i. The curd in cheese 
made by this method will be fine-grained, soft, and creamy, 
and salt alone need be added. 

Cottage Cheese No. 3 

Place the dish containing sour milk in a pan half-filled with 
zvarm water. Pour into the sour milk i c. of hot, not boiling, 
water (about 175° F.), and stir thoroughly until heated evenly, 
then proceed as in No. i. 

Sour Cream Cheese 

Chill the cream and pour into a cheesecloth bag and let 
stand several hours in a cold place. It will drain more readily 
if the cloth is first wrung out of salted water. When thoroughly 
drained, add salt to taste. Keep in a cold place until ready to 
serve. 

Creamed Cheese on Toast 

1 tb. flour I t. butter 

2 tb. cold milk -| t. salt 

^ c. scalded milk Spk. cayenne 

I c. chopped cheese i ^gg 

Mix the flour with the cold milk in upper part of double 
boiler : stir in the scalded milk and boil i minute, stirring all 
the time, then cook 5 to 10 minutes over boiling water. Add the 
cheese, and when melted add salt, pepper, and butter, and 



MILK, MILK PRODUCTS, AND LKGUMES 2/1 

the beaten tgg. Cook i minute and pour over slices of toasted 
bread or crackers. Serve at once. 

Baked Crackers "with Cheese 
Split common crackers in halves and butter the inside 
slightly. Put them, buttered side up, on a pan, and bake in a 
hot oven until yellow. Remove from oven and sprinkle each 
half with grated cheese. Allow for each whole cracker i tb. 
of cheese, a few grains of salt, and pepper, if liked. Return 
to oven and heat until cheese is melted. 

THE LEGUMES 

The legumes, or pod-bearing plants, are, next to the cereals, 
the most valuable and the most extensively used of the vege- 
table foods. Those most commonly used are the various kinds 
of peas and beans. The seeds are eaten green, either alone, 
as green peas, or with the pod, as string beans, etc. ; they are 
also ripened and dried, as split peas, dried beans, and lentils. 
Peanuts also belong to the legumes, although commonly classed 
with the nuts. 

The dried seeds of legumes are rich in nutriment, contain- 
ing on an average nearly 25 per cent of protein and 50 per cent 
or more of starch, with a little mineral matter. The peanut 
contains in addition a large proportion of fat, a nutrient in 
which the other legumes are deficient. "Peanut butter" (pea- 
nuts roasted and ground) is the form in which they are exten- 
sively used at the present time. Legumes constitute a valuable 
food supply available all the year round. They occupy small 
space, keep well, and can be prepared in a great many appe- 
tizing and nutritious forms. Properly cooked and eaten in 
reasonable quantities, beans and peas may replace a portion 
of the meat in the daily food. 



2/2 A COURSE IN HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

A comparison of some of the more common fresh and dried 

legumes with other food materials is shown in the following 

table : 

^r • 1 TT7 T^ • r- Carbo- jy Fuel value 

Material Water Protein Fat , , , "^^'^ ^ , , 

hydrates per pound 



Fresh legumes : 




Fer ct. 


Per ct. 


Perct. . 


Perct. . 


Per ct. 


Calori 


String beans 




89.2 


2.3 


0.3 


7-4 


0.8 


195 


Shelled kidney 


beans 


58.9 


9.4 


.6 


29.1 


2.0 


740 


Shelled lima b( 


?ans 


68.5 


7-1 


.7 


22.0 


1.7 


570 


Shelled peas 




74.6 


7.0 


.5 


16.9 


1.0 


465 


Dried legumes : 
















Lima beans 




10.4 


18. 1 


1-5 


65-9 


4.1 


1,625 


Navy beans 




12.6 


22.5 


1.8 


59.6 


3-5 


1,605 


Lentils 




84 


25.7 


i.o 


59-2 


5-7 


1,620 


Dried peas 




9-5 


24.6 


.1 


62. 


2.9 


1,655 


Peanuts 




9.2 


25.8 


38.6 


24.4 


2 


2,560 


Potatoes 




78.3 


2.2 


.1 


18.4 


1.0 


385 


Cabbage 




91-5 


1.6 


.3 


5.6 


1.0 


145 


Tomatoes 




94-3 


•9 


•4 


3-9 


•5 


105 


Rolled Oats 




7-7 


16.7 


7-2, 


66.2 


2.1 


1,850 


Wheat breakfast foods 


9.6 


12.1 


1.8 


75.2 


1.3 


1.700 


Spring-wheat flour 


12.3 


11.7 


I.I 


74-5 


•4 


1,650 


Lean beef 




70.0 


21.3 


7-9 


. . . 


I.I 


730 


Dried beef 




54-3 


30.0 


(>.S 


•4 


91 


840 


Milk 




87.0 


2>-3 


4- 


5-0 


•7 


325 


Cheese 




34-2 


25-9 


2,2>-7 


2.4 


^.^ 


1,950 


Butter 




II.O 


I.O 


85.0 




3-0 


3,605 


Eggs 




72>-7 


14.8 


10.5 




1.0 


720 



— Farmers' Bulletin 121 

Note. — The fuel value of any substance is the amount of heat it 
yields when burned or oxidized completely. The fuel value of a food 
is learned by burning a given weight of it in a strong steel receptacle, 
known as the "bomb-calorimeter." Calorimeter means literally a meas- 
urer of heat, one calorie representing the amount of heat required to 
raise the temperature of approximately one pint (one pound) of water 
four degrees Fahrenheit. The bomb is immersed in a definite amount 
of water in which a thermometer is placed, and the food within the 
closed bomb is ignited by means of an electric spark. The heat given 
off during its combustion is indicated by the thermometer, every four 
degrees rise in temperature of the water representing a fuel value of 
one calorie. 



MILK, MILK PRODUCTS, AND LEGUMES 2^^) 

Vegetable protein is in general less readily digested than 
the protein of meat, because the nutrients of vegetable foods 
are inclosed in cells having walls of cellulose or woody fiber, 
which interfere greatly with their absorption. The tough skins 
of dried peas and beans are wholly indigestible. The skin is 
easily removed from dried and ripened peas, however, giving 
"split peas," and the skins of many kinds of beans are easily 
removed by stirring after the beans have been soaked in w^ater 
for several hours, while the large Lima bean can be easily 
slipped out of the skin after soaking. 

Removing the skins thus or straining them out after cook- 
ing will greatly increase digestibility. 

Legum'in, the protein found in peas, beans, and lentils, is 
sometimes called vegetable casein, from its resemblance in many 
respects to the casein of milk. 

Since peas, beans, and lentils contain a very small propor- 
tion of fat, fat in some form is usually added. Dried peas or 
beans should be soaked in cold water several hours, then cooked 
a long time at a moderate temperature, in order to soften them 
and to develop the flavor. When possible, soft water should be 
used both for soaking and cooking. A very small quantity of 
bicarbonate of soda (*' cooking soda") — one teaspoonful to one 
gallon of water — added while cooking, wuU soften them more 
quickly, but too much will injure the flavor. 

The best dried beans are smooth and shining, w4th no folds 
of the skin, caused by poor drying. Beans should be of uniform 
size, not too small, and of the same variety. The larger beans 
are generally preferred because they have a smaller proportion 
of skin. There are, however, several varieties of small beans 
which have a thin skin and fine flavor. These varieties com- 
mand a higher price. 



274 A COURSE IN HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

Boston Baked Beans 

I qt. pea beans 2 tb. sugar 

3 qt. cold water 2 tb. molasses 

J lb. fat salt pork i tb. salt 

Boiling water 

Pick over and wash beans. Cover with cold water and soak 
over night. In the morning drain, add fresh water, and cook 
gently until, when a few are blown upon, the skins will burst. 
Drain off the water and put the beans into an earthenware 
bean pot. 

Scald and scrape the rind of the pork. With a sharp knife 
make cuts through the rind half an inch apart. 

Push beans from the center and put in the pork, leaving 
only the rind exposed. Put the sugar, molasses, and salt into 
a cup and fill with boiling water. Pour this over the beans and 
pork, and add enough more boiling water to come nearly to 
the top of the beans. Cover, and bake in a sloz^' oven 8 to 12 
hours, adding water as needed, to keep moist. Uncover during 
the last hour, that the pork rind may become brown and crisp. 

Less pork may be used if preferred : if pork is part lean 
instead of all fat, a little less salt should be used. 

The flavor may be varied by adding i t. of mustard with 
the salt and sugar. A small onion is sometimes placed in the 
bean pot before the beans are put in, or tomato catsup may be 
added. The sugar may be omitted and J c. of molasses, or even 
more, may be used instead, if beans are preferred sweeter and 
of a darker color. 

Dried Lima Beans No. i 

Wash the dried beans well and soak in plenty of cold water 
12 hours. Drain, cover with boiling water, and cook about 
2 hours, or until tender. Let the water evaporate until there 



MILK, MILK PRODUCTS, AND LEGUMES 2/5 

is only sufficient to moisten the beans well. Add salt, pepper, 
and butter to taste ; let cook a few moments before serving. 

Dried Lima Beans No. 2 

Remove the skins after the Lima beans are soaked by press- 
ing between the thumb and finger. Add boiling water to cover 
and cook until soft. Alash fine and season to taste, or use for 
soup or puree. (See p. 276.) 

Split Pea Soup 
•J c. split peas i tb. flour 

1 qt. cold water I t. salt 
•J small onion Pepper 

2 tb. butter i to 2 c. hot water or milk 
Pick over and wash the peas. Soak 8 to 12 hours in cold 

w^ater. Drain off the water and cook peas and onion in the 
quart of water until soft. Press through a strainer, and add 
butter and flour cooked together. Add seasoning, and thin with 
hot water or milk, and reheat. Peas will not soften in salted 
water, so salt should not be added until they are cooked. A 
small piece of fat salt pork or a ham bone may be cooked with 
the peas, and if so, the butter may be omitted. Lentil soup 
may be made as directed for Split Pea Soup. 

Baked Bean Soup 

2 c. baked beans i^ c. tomatoes 

3 c. water i tb. butter 
J onion I tb. flour 

Salt and pepper to taste 
Cook beans, onion, and tomatoes in the water 15 minutes. 
Mash and strain, and add remaining ingredients as directed in 
Split Pea Soup. One teaspoonful or more of catsup or Worces- 
tershire Sauce may be added. 



2^6 A COURSE IN HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

Puree of Lima Beans 

I c. Lima beans \ t. pepper 

3 pt. cold water i tb. butter 

I t. salt I tb. flour 

Soak beans 12 hours, if dried; drain, and add cold water 
to cover. Cook until soft, then press through a strainer. 
Reheat, and if necessary add more liquid, which may be water, 
milk, or soup. Cream butter, flour, and seasoning together and 
add to soup. Let boil i minute, and serve immediately with 
croutons or crisp crackers. 

A small onion or two tomatoes may be cooked with the 
beans, and a very little cayenne may be added if desired. 

Stuffed Bean Roll 

Mix together i c. each of fine-chopped ham, or corned 
beef, and potatoes, one slice of onion, i tb. each of celery and 
green pepper chopped fine. Add a few grains of cayenne, and 
salt if necessary. 

Press through a strainer i^ c. cooked navy or lima beans. 
Add to the pulp -J t. salt, a few grains of cayenne, and a beaten 
t.g%. Form the meat and potato mixture into a roll, and cover 
entire surface with the bean pulp. Lay the roll carefully into a 
buttered baking dish, brush with melted bntter, and bake in 
a moderate oven about 30 minutes, or until thoroughly heated. 
Serve with tomato sauce, to which Worcestershire sauce may 
be added. 



CHAPTER XVII 
Salads 

Simple salads consist of fresh vegetables which require no 
cooking, as lettuce, endive, cress, etc., served with a dressing. 
Cooked vegetables, meat, fish, fruits, etc., are also used for 
salads. 

Salads should be prepared daintily, arranged attractively, 
and should be served cold. 

Lettuce and other salad plants should be fresh, crisp, and 
clean. Wash thoroughly, leaf by leaf, without crushing; chill 
in very cold water until crisp, dry by patting gently with clean 
towel, and drain the leaves. Or fold lightly in a towel and place 
near the ice until serving time. 

French dressing is easily prepared and is suitable for any 
salad. The dressing should not be added to green vegetables 
until just before serving, as it wilts them. 

In order that the seasoning may penetrate thoroughly, salad 
materials like meat, fish, or vegetables, cut into suitable pieces, 
are mixed with a small quantity of oil, vinegar, pepper, and salt, 
and allowed to stand an hour or two. This flavoring mixture 
is termed a ''marinade/' and the salad ingredients are said to be 
''marinated/' Before serving, drain off unabsorbed liquid and 
add any desired salad dressing. 

French Dressing 

^ t. salt 2 tb. vinegar or lemon juice 

J t. pepper 2 to 4 tb. olive oil 

Mix together and stir thoroughly until well blended ; or 
add salt and pepper to the oil and pour it over the salad material. 

277 



2/8 A COURSE IX HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

Toss lightly with a fork until all is seasoned, then add the 
vinegar, and mix gently until well distributed. Three or four 
drops of onion juice or a few grains of cayenne may be used 
to vary the flavor. 

College Salad 

2 c. cooked carrots i stalk of celery cut into thin 

chopped fine slices 

I or 2 tart apples cut into i small green pepper chopped 

^-inch cubes fine 

Salt and pepper to taste 

Mix all together ; add French dressing and chill. For in- 
dividual service, place 2 tb. on a crisp lettuce leaf, or make 
lettuce "cups" by putting two small leaves together, with stalk 
ends overlapping each other. 

Cooked Salad Dressing 

I t. salt I egg yolk 

I t. mustard -J c. scalded milk 

I tb. sugar J c. hot vinegar 

Few o:rains of cavenne i tb. butter 



fe' 



Scald the milk. Mix salt, mustard, sugar, and cayenne 
together in a bowl. Add egg yolk, and mix thoroughly. Add 
scalded milk slowly, return to double boiler, add the hot vinegar, 
and cook until mixture thickens. Add the butter, stir till melted, 
and strain. Cool before using. If desired thicker, use another 
egg yolk, or mix i t. flour with enough of the cold milk to make 
a smooth mixture; add to remainder of the ^ c. milk and boil 
I minute before adding to the egg mixture. 



SALADS 2/9 

Shredded Cabbage or Cole Sla-w 

Remove wilted leaves and cut a quarter from a small head 
of cabbage and let stand in cold water until crisp. Cut out 
stalk, and shred the cabbage fine. Serve with cooked salad 
dressing. 

Water Lily Salad 

Remove shells from hard-cooked eggs. Divide eggs into 
halves crosswise, cutting through whites in such a way that the 
edges will be cut into sharp points. Remove the yolks, put them 
in a bowl, mash and season to taste with salt, pepper, and melted 
butter, or moisten them with salad dressing. Refill the whites 
with the yolk mixture, cut a thin slice from the bottom, and 
arrange the halves on a bed of lettuce leaves, which have been 
washed, dried, and chilled. Serve with cooked salad dressing. 
Radishes, washed and chilled until crisp, may be used to garnish 
the salad. The radishes may be cut to resemble the petals of 
a tulip. 

Rice and Tomato Salad ^ 

Scald, peel, and chill a small, ripe tomato for each person to 
be served. Cut a cone-shaped piece from the stem end and with 
a silver fork carefully w^ork in salt and pepper to season. Or 
remove the inside of the tomato and fill the center with chopped 
celery, green peppers, and nuts, mixed with salad dressing. 
Arrange on a bed of lettuce leaves and rice, and place a spoon- 
ful of dressing on top. 

Salmon Salad with Rice^ 

Remove bones and skin from the contents of a can of salmon 
and mince finely. Add an equal amount of cold boiled rice and 
season with salt, pepper, and vinegar. Stir in plenty of salad 

^ Cornell Bulletin : " Rice and Rice Cookery." 



280 A COURSE IN HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

dressing and set away for a while in a cold place. When ready 
to serve, add a little crisp celery cut fine, or chopped nastur- 
tium stems, and shape in molds moistened with cold water. 
Turn out on a bed of lettuce leaves, celery tips, or finely 
shredded crisp cabbage, and garnish with stuffed olives cut 
lengthwise or with nasturtium blossoms and leaves. 
(Other fish may be substituted for salmon.) 

Egg Salad with Rice^ 
Arrange crisp lettuce leaves on individual plates. In the 
center of each place a generous spoonful of cold boiled rice 
and on this a spoonful of dressing. A dainty effect may be 
obtained by arranging on top of this slices of hard-cooked egg 
cut lengthwise, in imitation of an open water lily. 

Sour Cream Dressing 

i t. salt J t. pepper 

I t. sugar I egg 

J t. mustard i c. sour cream 

I t. vinesrar 

Mix dry ingredients, add the egg beaten slightly, and stir 
well. Add the cream slowly, and cook in double boiler, stirring 
constantly, until it thickens like soft custard. Strain, and when 
cool add the vinegar. 

Bacon Fat Dressing 

Cut i lb. fat bacon or ham into small dice. Fry slowly 
until the scraps are crisp and the fat Hght brown. Take from 
fire and add vinegar in the proportion of one-third as much 
vinegar as bacon fat. Have ready the salad material, seasoned 
with salt, pepper, and onion, if liked. The bacon scraps may be 
strained out or left in. 

^ Cornell Bulletin : " Rice and Rice Cookery." 



SALADS 281 

German Potato Salad 

6 medium-sized potatoes I c: hot vinegar 

1 small onion J c. hot water 

2 t. salt J lb. fat bacon 

J t. black pepper 2 tb. salad oil, if liked 

Boil the potatoes and peel ; cut them into half -inch cubes 
while warm, put them into salad bowl, and cover with the 
dressing. 

Cut bacon into small dice, put into a frying pan over a slow 
fire, and cook until the fat is light brown and the bacon crisp ; 
then add the salad oil, if used. Slice onion very fine, put into 
salad bowl with the potatoes, add the salt, pepper, hot vinegar, 
and water, then the hot bacon fat, slowly, to avoid spattering. 
Mix well ; garnish salad with pickled beets cut into cubes or 
fancy shapes. This salad is an exception to the rule ; it is best 
served hot. 

Junior Salad 
■J lb. large prunes i green pepper 

I stalk celery J small onion 

Wash prunes and soak in cold water till plump. Remove 
stones and fill prunes with the celery, pepper, and onion chopped 
fine and mixed with French Dressing. Garnish with Cottage 
Cheese Balls rolled in chopped nuts. Serve on lettuce leaves, 
and add more dressing if desired. 



CHAPTER XVIII 
Food for Invalids 

The preparation and serving of food is of especial impor- 
tance in illness. Food for invalids should be perfectly cooked 
and attractively served, and all utensils used should be scrupu- 
lously clean. 

Dishes should be heated, if necessary, and the tray arranged 
before the food is prepared. The tray should be covered with 
the whitest napkin, the dishes should be the prettiest and 
daintiest that can be obtained, and they should shine with 
cleanliness. The tray should not be crowded, and the dishes 
should be so arranged that the person can eat with as much 
comfort as possible. A blossom or two, or even a few green 
leaves, in a slender vase will add much to the attractiveness of 
the whole. A pleasing color or some beauty of arrangement 
will often tempt one to eat when the food would otherwise 
remain untouched. 

The quantity of food given will vary according to the con- 
dition of the person, but in general it is better to serve a little, 
rather than too much, at one time. 

In serving a single glass or cup, use a small tray, or a plate, 
covered with a doily or a folded napkin. To avoid spilling, cups 
and glasses should be filled to within an inch of the top. 

Never touch the bowls of spoons, nor the inside of plates, 
cups, glasses, etc., with the fingers. The hands should be washed 
before handling either food or dishes. 

Serve hot drinks hot, not lukewarm ; the cups or dishes for 
hot food should be heated also. 

2S2 



FOOD FOR INVALIDS 283 

Cold drinks and fruit are more healthful when served cool, 
rather than ice-cold. 

Food or drinks should not be allowed to remain in the room 
longer than is absolutely necessary, and should be covered when 
possible. The tray and all traces of a meal should be removed 
immediately after serving. 

In contagious diseases everything used — dishes, knives, 
forks, spoons, the napkin, the tray, etc. — should be sterilized 
by boiling in water for half an hour after using. Use nothing 
which cannot be washed. 

Among simple and digestible foods may be mentioned well- 
cooked cereals, gruels, rice water, etc. ; the varieties of toast, 
crisp crackers, croiitons, milk porridge, and macaroni with white 
sauce ; cocoa, albuminized milk, eggnog, tgg lemonade, soft- 
cooked, poached, and creamy egg, and custards ; ice cream ; 
beef tea, meat broth, beef juice, broiled meat, etc. 

In serious illness the physician in attendance should be con- 
sulted, and the directions followed exactly. Much unnecessary 
suffering, and even death, has resulted from giving articles of 
food which have been forbidden. 

Irish Moss Blanc-Mange 

J c. Irish moss J t. salt 

2 c. milk ^ t. vanilla or lemon extract 

Soak the moss in cold water until soft. Wash, drain, and 
pick over the moss, and put it in a lace bag and cook it with 
the milk in the top of double boiler. Cook 30 minutes, or until 
a few drops will stiffen when put on a cold plate. Add the salt 
and flavoring, and pour into a cold, wet mold, or into small 
molds or cups. 



284 A COURSE IN HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

Irish Moss Lemonade 

Prepare 2 tb. Irish moss as for blanc-man^e. Put the moss 
into the top of a double boiler with 2 c. cold water, and cook 
over boiling water 20 minutes. Strain, and add lemon juice and 
sugar to taste. Serve hot or cold. 

Flaxseed Tea 

Pick over i tb. flaxseed. Put into a strainer and pour cold 
water over it. Put the flaxseed with 2 c. cold water into a sauce- 
pan, and boil i hour. Add more water as it boils away. There 
should be two cups when the tea is cooked. Strain, add lemon 
juice and sugar to taste, and serve hot or cold. 

To Chip Ice 

Wash the ice, and place it upon a clean towel. With a 
thimble on the finger press a strong needle against the ice, 
near the edge, using a quick downward motion. Chip off as 
much as will be required, collect it with a spoon, and put it into 
a glass. Serve by itself, or with currant or other acid jelly, or 
with fruit juice. Ice "shavers" may be purchased. 

Orange Sunflower 

Wash an orange thoroughly. Press a fork firmly into the 
stem end, and with a sharp knife cut from the orange a paring 
thick enough to remove the skin and the membrane. Do not 
touch the fruit with the fingers. Cut as close to the membrane 
between the sections as possible, first on one side, then on the 
other, and remove the pulp, leaving the membrane. Take out 
any seeds, and place the sections on a small plate, and arrange 
them like the petals of a sunflower, with the points of the petal«s 
meeting in the center. 



FOOD FOR INVALIDS 285 

Peach Foam 

Remove the skin from 3 or 4 perfectly ripe peaches. Cut 
into small pieces. For a cupful, allow -| c. powdered sugar 
and the white of i egg. Put all together into a bowl, and 
beat with a silver or a wooden fork until thick and perfectly 
smooth. This may be served with or without cream. Stewed 
apricots may be used instead of the peaches. Less sugar may 
be used. 

Apple Water, Rhubarb Water, Lemonade 

Wash and wipe a sour apple. Cut into pieces, put into 
a saucepan with i c. of cold water. Cook until the apple is 
soft. Strain through cheesecloth or clean linen, sweeten to 
taste, and serve cold. A stalk of rhubarb may be used instead 
of the apple, for rhubarb water. Rhubarb or an apple with red 
skin will give a pleasing color to the water. Other acid fruits 
may be used in the same way. In making lemonade for an 
invalid use boiling instead of cold water. It may then be served 
hot or cold. 

Milk Porridge 

6 raisins, seeded and i c. milk 

quartered | tb. flour 

Cold water Salt to taste 

Put raisins into a small saucepan, cover with cold water, and 
cook until the water is nearly evaporated. 

Reserve enough of the milk, cold, to make a thin batter 
with the flour, pour the remainder of the milk over the raisins 
in the pan. Stir until hot ; then add the flour mixture, and stir 
constantly until it has boiled 5 minutes. Strain, add salt to 
taste, and serve hot. 



286 A COURSE IN HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

To seed raisins, wet the finger tips in warm water, press 
raisin, and push seeds to the surface. Use a small knife to cut 
the skin and take out seeds. Dip knife blade into the warm 
water to remove seeds. 

Cracker Gruel 
4 tb. cracker crumbs -J t. salt 

I c. cold water i t. butter or cream 

I c. cold milk 

Roll crackers fine, put crumbs into a small saucepan, and 
add the cold water. Heat until the mixture boils, stirring con- 
stantly ; add the milk and salt, and reheat. Add the butter or 
cream, and, if desired, a little grated "nutmeg. 

Arro^vroot Gruel 
^ tb. arrowroot i c. boiling water 

■J t. sugar I c. hot milk 

I tb. cold water Spk. nutmeg or cinnamon 

Salt to taste 

Mix arrowroot with sugar in upper part of double boiler; 
add cold water, and stir till smooth. Pour the boiling water 
in gradually, and place over direct heat and stir constantly 
until mixture has boiled i minute, then cook over boiling water 
30 minutes or longer. Add the hot milk, flavoring, and salt. 
]\Iix thoroughly, and strain if not thoroughly smooth. Reheat 
to boiling point, but do not boil after milk is added. Serve hot. 

Flour Gruel 

Substitute i tb. of flour for the arrowroot, and proceed 
according to directions. A half-inch of stick cinnamon may be 
used instead of the ground spice. 



INDEX 



Abbreviations, 57 

Acidity, ^6 

Acids, 74, 154, 180, 181, 266 

Agateware, 13 

Air, 18 

Aitchbone, 194 

Albumin, 169, 172, 173, 174, 224, 225, 

226, 228, 229, 236, 256, 257 
Albuminous material, 180, 224, 225, 

228, 236 
Albuminized milk, 175 
Alcohol, 154, 158 
Alcoholic fermentation, 154 
Aleurone, 146 
Alimentary canal, 36 
Aluminum, care of, 13 
Animal foods, chief nutrients of, 255 

fats of, 182 
Apple compote, 82 

sauce, 82 

tapioca, 114 

water, 285 
Apples, baked, 82 

coddled, 82 

dried, 81 

evaporated, stewed figs and, 86 

scalloped, 166 

steamed, 81 

to serve, 76 
Apricots, dried, 81 
Arrowroot, no 

gruel, 286 
Ash, 46, 47 

constituents of body, 40 

pan, 21 
Ashes, storing of hot, 22 

Bacon, baked macaroni with, 130 

fat, digestibility of, 216 

fat dressing, 280 
Bacteria, i, 2, 3, 15, 126, 150, 154, 

157, 170, 259, 260, 261, 266 
Baked apples, 82 

bananas, 84 

beans, 274 

bean soup, 275 

crackers, with cheese, 271 

custard, 177 

macaroni, with bacon, 130 
with cheese, 130 
with tomato, 130 

potatoes, 104 

rhubarb, 84 

sweet potatoes, 104 
Baking bread, 157, 159, i6o 



2S7 



Bananas, "^d, 84 
Barley candy, 138 
Beans, baked, 274 

comparison of with other foods, 

2-J2 

composition of, 271 

digestibility and nutritive value, 

271 
dried, a meat substitute, 271 
fuel value of, 2'j2 
green, 91, 271 
string, 2~2 
Beef, average composition of, 184 
carcass, division of, 187-196 
color of, 185 
cooking of, 227,, 245 
for corning, 194, 195 
cuts, Boston method, 189 

Chicago method, 188 
fat of, 186 
flank, 187, 195, 196 
loin, 187, 190, 191 
"marbling" of, 184, 186 
quality in, 186 
rib cuts, 189, 191, 192 
ribs, 187 
roasts, 192, 193 
rolled, 231 
"rolls," 195 
rounds, 193, 194 
rumps, 194 
shanks, 194, 196 
steaks, 10 

"bottom-round," 238, 239 

chuck, 221 

club, 190, 191, 221 

Delmonico, 191 

flank, 190, 191, 221 

fiat-bone sirloin, 192 

Hamburg, 194, 240 

"hip sirloin," 191 

porterhouse, 190, 191, 221 

round, 193, 194, 221 

round-bone sirloin, 192 

rump, 194 

"short," 191 

sirloin, 190, 191, 221 

small, 190 

tenderloin, 191 

T-bone, 191 

"top-round," 194, 221 
stew, 234 
tea, 225, 22(i 

"tender," or "fillet of," 190 
tenderloin, 190, 191 
tenderness in, indications of, 185 



2S8 



INDEX 



Beets, 93 

Beverages and Fruits, 66-86 

Biscuit, baking powder, 239 

Blanc mange, Irish moss, 283 

Bouillon cubes, dietary value of, 225 

Bread, 141, 142 

baking, 157, 159 

crumbs, buttered, 130 
dried, 167 

defects in, 161 

digestibility of, 163, 164 

entire wheat, 163 

flavor of, 161 

flour, 142 

Graham, 163 

ingredients of, 155, 163 

leavened, 141 

left-over, uses for, 165 

liquids used in, 155 

long-process, 162 

nutritive value of, 163, 164 

rye, 145 

short-process, 161 

temperature for raising, 156, 162 

unlea\ened, 141 
crackers, 141 
hoe cake, 141 
Johnnie cake, 141 
Passover bread, 141 

whole or entire wheat, 163 
Breakfast foods, cereal, 120-125 

composition of, 120 

method of cooking, 125 

nutritive value and digestibility, 
121, 122 
Breakfast table, laying of, 27 
Brisket, fancy, 1,95 
Briskets, 195 
Broiled chops, 239 

fish, 254 

butter dressing for, 254 

Hamburg steak, 240 

steak, 238 

butter dressing for, 239 
Broiling, 54, 236 

effect of, 2^7 

meats for, 221, 237 

method of, 238 

object of, 236 

steak, 238 

under gas flame. 239 

utilizing heat of oven while, 239 
Broths, nutritive value of, 226 
Browned flour, thickening power of, 

117 
Buckwheat, no 
Butter, 245, 259, 260 

balls, 265 

composition of, 259 



Butter, digestibility of, 245 

flavor of, 259 

making, 265 

milk, 259 

taffy, 140 
Buttered crumbs, 130 

Cabbage, 96 

boiled, 96 

creamed, 99 
Caffeine, 70 
Calcium, 39, 40, 46, 47 
Calfs-foot jelly, 199 
Calorie, 272 
Calorimeter, 272 
Calves, "-natives," 196, 198 

"Westerns," 196, 198 
Candling of eggs, 170 
Candy, barley, 138 

butter taffy, 139 

cocoanut drops, 140 

for cornballs, 140 

fruit bar, 139 

horehound, 139 

nut bar, 139 

peanut, 139 
Cantaloupe, 77 

(See Muskmelon) 
Capacity measures, 58 
Caramel sauce, 128 
Carbohydrates, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 
46, 48, 49, 50, 51, 120, 121, 142, 
171, 172 

digestion of, 51 

a foodstuff, 49 

function of, 51 

nutritive value of, 50 

source of, 51 
Carbon, 18, 39, 40 
Carbon dioxide, 18, 49, 60, 154, 158 
Carpet sweeper, 7 
Carpets, sweeping of, 6 
Carrots, 89, 93, 94 

boiled, 93 

creamed, 93 

in College Salad, 278 

molded, 94 
Casein, 245, 256, 257, 260, 266 

vegetable, 27;^ 
Cauliflower, 90 
Cell substance, 180 
Cells, blood, muscle, etc., 40 

of wheat grain, 146, 147 

yeast, 154 
Cellulose, 51, 75, 87, 98, 147, 267 
Cerealine, 146 
Cereals, 75, 89, 120, 125, 131, 141, 142 

and gruels, 123 

breakfast, 122 



INDEX 



289 



Cereals, composition of, 120 

cooking, 123 

digestibility and nutritive value, 
123 

molded, 127 

"ready to eat," 122 
Charcoal, 18 
Cheese, bacteria in, 266 

baked crackers with, 271 

care of in the home, 268 

cottage, 268, 269, 270 

creamed on toast, 270 

digestibility and nutritive value, 
266, 268 

hard, 266 

macaroni and, 129, 130 

place in diet, 266, 267 

ripening of, 266 

soft, 266 

sour cream, 270 

with potatoes, 106 
Chemical constituents of the body, 40 
Chemical constituents of food, 41 
Cherries, yy 
Chickens, 179, 181 
Chimney damper, 19 
China, treatment of fine, 12 
Chine of pork, 217 
Chine-bones, 189 
Chocolate, 72, 72, 
Chops, 208 

"English," 208 

"French," 209 

"kidney," 208 

loin, 207, 208, 209 

pan-broiled, 239 

pork, 217 

rib, 209 

rolled, 209 

veal, 199 
Chowder, fish, 253 
Chuck, 187, 194, 195 
Clarified fat, 245, 246, 248, 249 
Club steak, 191 
Coal range, 19, 20, 21, 22 

care of, 21 

cleaning of, 21, 22 

flues of, 21 

structure of, 19 

to blacken, 22 

to lay a fire in, 20 

to keep a fire over night, 21 
Cocoa, 72 

bean, 72 

butter, 72 

nibs, 72 

shells, 72 

to make, 72, 



Codfish, fresh, 250 

salted, 250 
Coffee, 69, 72 

"after-dinner," or black, 72 

boiled, 71 

"clearers," 70 

filtered, 70 
Coffee service, 28 
"Cold storage" eggs, 171 
Combustion, 18, 49, 50 
Compote, apple, 82 
Composition of human body, 40 
Composition of food, 41 
Compressed yeast, 152 
Connective tissue, 179, 180, 181 
Cooker, fireless, 122 

steam, 54 
Cooking, methods of, 54 

baking, 55 

boiling, 54 

braising, 55 

broiling, 55 

frying, 55 

pot-roasting, 54 

roasting, 55 

saute, 55 

steaming, "dry," "wet," 54 

stewing, 54 
Corn meal, 125, 126 

molded, 127 

"water-ground," 125 
Cornstarch mold, 113 
Cottage pie, 242 
Courses, serving in, 27, 30 
"Cover," individual, 28 
Crackers, 118, 141 

baked with cheese, 271 

crisped, 118 
Cranberry sauce, 83 

jellied, 84 
Cranberries and prunes, 85 
Cream, 259 

for butter making, 259, 265 

ice, for one, 65 

ice. No. I, No. 2, 64 

soups, 275 

sour, 270 

toast, 119 

whipped, 264 
Creamed fish, 253 
Creamed potatoes, 105, 106 
Creamy eggs, 178 
Croutons, 117 

Crown roast of mutton, 211 
Crumbs, buttered, 130 

dried, 167 
Crusts, browned-pudding, 168 
Cupful, to measure, 55 



290 



INDEX 



Curd of milk, experiment to sepa- 
rate, 260 
in cheesemaking, 166, 268 
Curdling of milk, cause of, 260 
Currants, .78, 81 
Custard, baked, 177 

steamed, 177 
Cut glass, care of, 12 
Cutlets, veal, 199 

Cuts of meat : beef, lamb, pork, veal, 
221, 222 
for soup and broth, 222 
moderately quick-cooking, 221, 223 
quick-cooking, 221, 22^ 
retail cuts, illustrated : 
beef, 220 

lamb or mutton, 206 
pork, 220 
veal, 220 
slow-cooking, 221, 22^ 
stewing, 222 
wholesale cuts : 

beef, Boston method, 189 

Chicago method, 188 
lamb or mutton, 204 
pork, 220 
veal, 197 

Dampers, stove : check, 20 

chimney, 19 

creative or fresh air, 19 

oven, 19 
Dates, 76 

Decoration or garnishing, 53 
Delmonico steak, 190 
Dextrin, 112, 158 
Diagram of ox, 189 • 

Diet, 46, 75, 90, loi ' 

Digestibility, beans, 91, 27^ 

bread, 263 

butter, 245 

cheese, 267 

codfish, 250 

eggs, 174 

fats, 245 

fish, 250 

fruit, 74 

legumes, 2y^ 

meat, 182 

milk, 258 

mutton fat, 247 

peas, 91, 273 

potatoes, loi 

pork, 216 

starch, 113 

toast, 118 

vegetables, 87 

wheat bread, 164, 165 
Digestion, 49 



Dinner, laying the table for, 29 

Dirt, 1-7 

Disease germs, 1, 3, 4 

Dishcloths, 1 1, 15 

Dishes, washing, etc., 10-13 

Dish towels, 1 1 

Distilled water, 61 

Division of labor, or specialization, 

. ?7 
Doilies, 2y 

Dough, chilling of, 159 

kneading and raising, 156, 157 

"off-hand"' or "straight," 156 

overheating, 159 

proportion of flour to liquid, 156 

temperature for baking, 159 
Drawn butter sauce, 252 
Dressing, salad : bacon fat, 280 

cooked, 278 

French, 2-/^ * 

sour cream, 280 
Dripping, 245, 246, 249 
Dry measure, 57 
Ducks, 179 
Dumplings, 235 

Durum flour, no, 129, 143, 144 
Durum wheat, no, 128, 129, 143, 144 
Dust, 1-7 
Dusting, I, 8, 9 

Economy of fuel, 18 
Economy of gas, 19 
Egg lemonade, 175 
Eggnog, 175 
Egg sauce, 133 
Egg vermicelli, 177 
Eggs, 169, 178 

albumin in, 169 

a meat substitute, 258 

composition, 172 

constituents of, 171, 172 

cooking of, 173 

creamy, 178 

digestibility of, 174 

experiments with, 173, 174 

for children, 171 

frozen, 171 

goldenrod, 177 

hard cooked, 176, 177 

iron in, 47 

nutritive value of, 172 

phosphorus in, 47 

poached, 176 

preservation of, 170 

scrambled, 178 

soft cooked, 175, 176 

spoiling of. 170 

steamed, 178 

structure of, 169 



INDEX 



291 



Eggs, tests for freshness. 170 
vermicelli or goldenrod, 177 
white, composition, 172 
yolk, composition, 172 

Electricity, 18 

Energy, 42, 43, 53 

Endosperm, 146 

Entire wheat bread, 163 

Enzymes, 88, 154 

Experiments, with egg albumin, 173, 

174 
gluten, effect of heat upon, 145 

separation of, from flour, 145 
meat, 224, 228, 236, 2:^7 
milk, separation of curd, whey, 

albumin, etc., 174 
potato, extracting starch, 99 
protein, test for, 174 
starch, 66, 99, iii, 112 
♦water, a diluent, 62, 66 

distilled, 62, 66 

flavor carrier, 66 

freezing, 62 

as solvent, 62 
Extracting juice of meat, 224, 232, 

233 
Extractives, 181, 183, 225, 226, 229, 

250 
Extract, meat, 225 
vegetable, 225 

Face of rump, 194 
Fat, a foodstuff, 42, 50 
bacon, 216 
beef, 181 

browning in hot, 233 
clarified, 246, 247, 248 
clarifying, 246, 248, 249 
composition of, 51 
decomposed, 267 
elements in, 40, 50 
fish, 250 

for dripping, 246 
function and nutritive value of, 

51, 52, 182 
in egg yolk, 172 
in food, a source of energy, 42, 43, 

49, 50, 52 
in fruit, 74 
in meat, 181, 186, 255 

beef, 184, 186, 213 

ham, 246 

lamb, 203 

mutton, 200, 203, 213, 232, 247, 
248 

pork, 215, 219 

veal, 198 
in milk, 256, 257, 259 
invisible, 118 



Fat, in wheat, 142 

overheated, ii6 

proportion of, in body, 41 

"protein sparer," a, 50 

to measure hard, 56 
Fats and oils, uses for, 245, 246 
Fats, animal, 182, 245 

decomposed, 267 

digestibility of, 245 

melting point of, 247 

of animal foods, 182 

of foods, sources of, 245 

vegetable, 245 
Fatty acids, 267 
Ferments (or enzymes), 87, 88, 99, 

154 
Fermentation, 152, 154, 160 
, alcoholic, 154 
Fiber, "crude," 120, 121, 126 

meat, 179, 216 

muscle, fish, 250, 251 

muscle, meat, 179, 180 

woody, 87, 147 
Figs and apples, stewed, 86 
Filtered coffee, 70 
Fine china, care of, 12 
Finger bowls, 29 
Fire, for broiling, 18, 238 

laying of, 20 
Fireless cooker, 122 
Fish, a meat substitute, 250 

boiled, 252 

broiled, 254 

cakes, 253 

canned, 251 

chowder, 253 

classes of, 250 

composition of, 250 

cooking, 251-253 

creamed, 253 

digestibility and nutritive value, 
250, 251 

dressing for, 254 

dried, 250, 251 

fat, 250 

fresh, tests for, 251 

frozen, 251 

hash, 253 

lean, 250 

muscle fiber of, 250, 251 

salted, 250 

sauces for, 252, 254 

scalloped, 253 

smoked, 250 

structure of, 251 
Flame, blue, yellow, 26 
Flank, beef, 187, 195, 196, 221 

lamb and mutton, 212 

steak, 195, 196 



292 



INDEX 



Flavor, 53, 54, 66, 180, 182, 216, 228, 

267, 2TZ 
Flaxseed tea, 284 
Floor, smooth, hard, to brush, 5 
Floors, sweeping carpeted, 6 
Flues of stove, 21 

Food, as building and repair mate- 
rial, 42, 43, 44 

animal, 44 

as fuel, 38, 39, 48, 49, 5o, 51, 136, 

137 
as regulator of bodily functions, 

42, 52 
carbohydrates and fats of, 48, 50, 

51 
chemical composition, 41 
combustion or oxidation of, 49, 5°, 

51 
cooking and serving, 53 
decoration or garnishing, 53 
elements, 41, 42, 258 
energy of, how made available, 49, 

for invalids, 282 

fruits, 74 

functions of, 42 

indigestible material in, 51 

milk as, 255, 256, 257, 258 

mineral matter of, 46, 47, 52 

object of cooking, 53 

palatability, 74 

protein, 42, 43 

sources of, 255 

starchy, 51 

surplus, 41, 48 

uses, in body, 42 

vegetable, 42, 47, 90, 91 

water in, 45 
Foodstuffs, 50 

classification of, 42 

elements in, 41, 42 

function of, 42 
Forequarter, beef, 187 

lamb and mutton, 203 

veal, 199 
Freezing, directions for, di 

mixtures for, 64 

point of water, d^ 
Flour, ash constituents of, 164, 165 

bread, 142, 143 

care of, 150, 151 

durum wheat, no, 128, 129, 143, 
144 

entire wheat, 149 

gluten, 149, 150 
Graham, 147 

gruel, 286 

pastry, 143, 145 
rye, 145 



Flour, spring wheat, 143-145, 2^2 

standard patent, 147, 148, 149 

tests for quality of, 150 

white, 147 

whole wheat, 149 

winter wheat, 143 
blending, 144 
Flours, grades of : family grade, 149 

first clear, 148 

first patent, 148, 149 

household, 149 

red dog, 148, 149 

second clear, 148, 149 

second patent, 148, 149 

straight grade, 148, 149 
Flues of coal range, 21 
French chops, 209 
French dressing, z-/"] 
Fricandeau, 199 
Fruit, ^2)^ 86 

average composition of, Tz^ 86 

cellulose in, 75 
- grape, 79 

overripe, 76 

raw, unripe, 76 
Fruit bar, 139 
Fruits, chief nutrients, 75 

cooking, 80 

dried, general rule for cooking, 81 

flavor of, 74 

food, 74 

fresh, serving, "jd, yj, 80 

nutritive value of, 74 

uncooked, 75 
. Fuel, 18, 19, 21, 38, 39, 48, 50, 122 
Fuel foods, 38, 39, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52 
Fuel value, definition, zyz 

how measured, 2^2 

Game, 179 
Garnishing food, 53 
Gas, as fuel, 18, 19 

burners, to light, etc., 22, 24, 25, 26 
construction of, 26 
range, 25, 26 

cleaning of, 22, 23 
selection of, 22, 2^ 
use of, 22,, 24 
to avoid waste of, 24, 25 
Gelatin, change of connective tissue 
into, 179, 180 
proportion of, in lean beef, 184 
yielding material in fish, 250 
German method of clarifving suet, 

248 
Germs. {Sec Bacteria) 
Glands, 2,6, 199 
Glass, cut, care of, 12 



INDEX 



293 



Glasses, to wash, 11, 12 

table, filling of, 31 
Gliadin, 144, 148 
Glucose, 136 
Gluten, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 148, 

149, 151, 158 
Glutenin, 144, 149 
Glycogen, 41 
Good meat, general indications of, 

185, 186 
Graham flour, 147 

bread, 147, 163, 164 
Grain, of meat, 184, 185, 203, 238 

of wheat, 146 
Granulated wheat preparations, 123 
Grapefruit, 78, 79 
Grapes, 78 

Gravies, 112, 117, 183, 230 
Gravy, for rolled beef, 230 

meat warmed in, 244 

methods of making, 22, 232 

mutton, 230 
Green vegetables, 89, 90, 91, 92 
Grouse, 179 
Gruels, 123, 124, 286 

Haddock, 250, 252, 253 
Halibut, 250, 252 
Hamburg steak, 194, 240 
Hams, 214, 216, 218, 221 
Hard cooked eggs, 176, 177 
Hard sauce, 168 
Hard water, 60, 61 
Hash, 242, 243, 253 

fish, 253 

meat, 242, 243 
Heat, 18, 49 

effect of, on albumin, 173, 174 
gluten, 145 
meat, 224, 225, 228, 229, 223, 

236, 237, 241 
starch, iii 

how measured, 272 
''Heel of the round," 194 
Herring, 250 
Hind quarters of: beef, 187, 189 

lamb and mutton, 203 

shank, 194, 196, 222 

shin, 196 

veal, 199 
Hip sirloin, 194 
Hoe cake, 141 
Horehound candy, 139 
Human body and food, 34, 52 
Hydrogen, 18, 39, 40 

Ice, experiment with, 62 
to chip, 284 
salt and ice. a freezing mixture, 63 



Ice cream, making, 64, 65 

to freeze, 63, 64 

to pack, 64 
Iced tea, 69 
Indian pudding, 127 
Inorganic substances, 59, 60 

in water, 60, 61 
Invalids, food for, 74 
Intestine, foods which stimulate 

action of, 75 
Irish moss, blanc mange, 283 

lemonade, 284 
Iron, in blood, 46, 47 

in body, 39, 40 

in egg yolks, 46, 47 

foods rich in, 46, 47 

in vegetables, 47, 90 
Ironware, care of, 13 

Jellied cranberry sauce, 84 
Johnnie cake, 141 
Jviice, fruit, 76 

gastric, 53, 182 

meat, 180, 223, 224 
Juices, digestive, 36, 76, 136, 183 
Junket, 263 

Keeping a fire over night, 21 
Kidney (meat), 213 

beans, 272 

chops, 208 

fat, 200 
Kitchen-ware and dishes, washing, 10 
Kneading and raising dough, 157 

first, reasons for, 157 

second, effects of, 157 
Knives, scouring, 13 
Knuckle, veal, 199 

Lactic acid, 260, 261 
Lactic acid bacteria, 260, 261 
Lactose, 257, 260 
Lamb, mutton and, 200 

carcasses, 203 

chops, 208, 209 
pan-broiled, 239 

cuts, 204, 206, 222 

joint or "break joint," loi 

saddles, 203 

shoulder of, 221 

spring, 202 

stew, veal or, 235 
Lambs, choice, 203 

dressed, 200 

"fall" frozen, 202 

genuine spring, 202 

winter (hot-house or incubator), 
202 

yearling 202 



294 



INDEX 



Lard, grades of, 219 

compound, 219 

kettle-rendered, 219 

kettle-rendered leaf, 219 

prime steam, 219 

refined, 219 

to render, 249 
Leavened bread, 141 
"Leavening agent," 141 
Left-over bread, uses itor, 165 
Legumes, comparison of, with other 
food materials, 91, 271, 2T2 

composition of, z-jz 

dried, food value of, 2T2 

fresh, 91, 2^2 

fuel value of, 272 
Legumin, 2']2, 
Lemonade, 285 
Lentils, 2^2, 273 
Lettuce, to wash, 2^] 
Lima beans, 274, 275 

dried, stewed, 2^2 

puree of, 2T(i 
Liquid measure, 57 
Liquids used in breadmaking, 155 
Liver, 183 
Loin, beef, 187, 189, 190, 191 

end, 190 

full, 190 

mutton, 203, 207, 208, 209, 221 

pork, 215, 216, 217, 221 

rolls, 217 

short, 190 

small end of, 191 

]\Iacaroni, baked, 130 

with bacon, 130 

with cheese, 130 

with tomato, 130 

boiled, 129 

with tomato and cheese, 129 

tomato sauce for, 129 

wheats, 128 
Mackerel, 250 
Magnesium, 39, 40 
Marbling, and indication of tender- 
ness in beef, 184, 185 
Marinade, 2Ty 
Marketing^ 184 
Mashed potatoes, 103 
Measuring, 55, 56 
Meat, 25 

boiled, 229 

broiled, 236 

classes of, 179 

color of, 180, 184, 185 

composition of, average, 184 

connective tissue of, 180, 181 

cooking, methods of, 221 



Meat, cuts of, 181 

cuts of beef, Boston method, 189 
Chicago method, 188 
lamb and mutton, retail, 206 

wholesale, 204 
pork, retail, 220 
wholesale, 214 
retail, veal, 220 
wholesale, 197 
effect of acid upon, 180 
experiments with, 224, 228, 2i(i, 

extractives, 181, 182, 183, 225, 226, 
229, 250 

extracts, 225, 226 

fat of, 181, 186 

firmness of, 184 

flavor of, 181, 182, 225, 230 

food value of, 182 

freezing, effect of, 181 

grain of, 184, 186 

juice, 180, 22;^, 224, 226, 22S, 229 

mineral matter in, 180, 182 

muscle fibers of, 179, 180 

organs used as, 183, 213 

pie, with potato crust, 244 

proportion of bohe in, 185 

protein, 184, 226 

quality in, 184, 186 

reheating, 241 

ripening of, 180, 181 

scalloped, 244 

stewing, 232 

structure of, 179 

substitutes, 171, 250, 258, 267 

tenderness, indications of, 185 

tough, how to make tender, 228 

trimmings, 183, 194, 195, 213, 219 

warmed in gravy, 224 

water in, 181 
Meats, boiling, 221 

moderately quick-cooking, 221 

quick-cooking, 221 

slow-cooking, 221 

soup and broth, 222 

stewing, 222 
Melons, Rockyford, 77, 78 

(See Cantaloupe) 
Melting point of fats, 245, 247, 248 
Metric measures, 57 
Microbes, i 
Middlings, 148, 150 
Mildew, 2 
Milk, 255 

action of rennet on casein of, 260 

a meat substitute, 258 

as a beverage, 258 

bacteria in, 260, 261, 262 

bad treatment of, 80, 261 



INDEX 



295 



Milk, bottled, 262 

bread, 164 

butter-, 259 

calcium in, 46, 47 

care of, in the home, 261, 262 

casein in, 256, 257, 260 

composition of, 257 

constituents of, 257 

curd of, 250, 260, 266, 268, 269 

curdling of, 260 

digestibility and nutritive value, 
258 

disease germs in, 261 

economy of, 258 

effect of acid on, 260 

experiments with, 256, 257 

fat of, 256, 259 

food elements of, 258 

for children, 258 

for invalids, 258 

fuel value of, 2-22 

heating, j^, 260 

ingredients of, 256, 257, 258 

"loose," 262 

milk products, 255 

mineral matter of, 46, 47, 256, 257 

nutritive value of, 255, 256, 257, 
258, 259 

serving of, 262 

sherbet, 64 

skimmed, 260, 269 

solids, 257 

sour, 260, 261, 268 

souring of, cause of, 260 

sugar, 256, 257, 260 

toast, 119 

utensils, cleaning, 26^ 

whey, 256, 257, 266, 269 

"whole," 258, 269 
Mineral matter, in body, 36, 40, 46, 

functions of, 52 

in food, 46, 55, 90 

{See under separate articles of 
food) 
Mint sauce, 231 
Mold, cornstarch, 113 
Molded carrots, 94 

corn meal, 127 
Molds, I, 2, 15 
Muscle, z^, 52, 179 

tubes or fibers, 179, 180, 181 
Muskmelon {see Cantaloupe), "jy, 78 
Mutton, 200 

breast of, 212 

carcass, division of, 202, 203 

chops, 207, 208, 209, 210 

color of, 203 

crown roast of, 210 



Mutton, cuts, retail, 216 

wholesale, 204 
division of side for household use, 

205 
"eye" of, 203 
fat, 200, 201, 213, 247, 248 
flavor and odor of, 201, 247, 248 
food value of, as compared with 

beef, 213 
good, 200, 201 
leg of, 205, 207, 213, 221 
loin of, 207, 221 
neck of, 212, 213 
plate and flank, 212 
quality of, 201 
rack, 203 
roast, 208, 210 
saddle, 203, 204 
"stew," 205 
water in, 213 
Myosin, 180 

Napkins, to place, 28 
Navel ends, 195 
Neck of mutton, 212, 213 
Neutral lard, 219 
Nitrogen, 39, 40, 43 
Nutritive value {see under individ- 
ual foods) 
Nvit bar, 138 
Nuts, glace, 138 

Oatmeal, coarse, 124 

gruel, 125 
Oats, rolled, 124 
Oils, fats and, 51, 52, 245 
Oleomargarine, 245 
Onions, 95 

boiled, 96 

odor of, to remove, 95 
Oranges, to serve, 79 
Orange sunflower, 284 
Organs, used as food, 34, 183 
Organism, 34 
Organisms in water, 60 
Oven, burner, 2;^ 

damper, 20 

linings, care of, 26 
Oxidation of food in the body, 49, 50 
Oxygen, 18, 39, 40, 50 

Pan-broiled chops, 239 
Pancreas, 199 
Parasites, 216, 252 
Parsnips, 89, 94 
Passover bread, 141 
Pastry flour, 143 
Patent flour, 148, 149 
Peaches, to serve, 79 



296 



INDEX 



Peach foam, 285 

Peanut candy, 139 

Peanuts, 271, 2'j2 

Pea soup, split, 275 

Peas, 91, 271, 2^2, 272, 

Phosphates, 42 

Phosphorus, 40, 46, 47, 52, 90, 137 

compounds, 182 
Pineapples, to serve, 79, 80 
Plate, cut of meat, 187 
Plates (beef), 195 
Poached eggs, 176 
Polished rice, 131, 132 
Polishes, silver, 14 
Polishing silver, 14, 15 
Pomola, or grapefruit, 79 
Pork, 216 

chops, 215, 221 

cuts, retail, 220, 221 
wholesale, 214, 216 

digestibility of, 216 

flavor of, 216 

fresh, 215 

hams, 216 

loins, 215, 216, 217 

plates, 218 

products, 215 

proportion of fat in, 181 

quality in, 215 

salt, 216 

shoulders, 221 

spare ribs, 219 

steak, 215, 220, 221 

tenderloins, 217, 218, 221 
Porterhouse steak, 190, 191, 221 
Potassium, 90 
Potato cakes, 106 
Pot-roasting, 54 
Potatoes, 89, 98, 99, 100 

bak'ed, 104 

boiled, 103 

browning of peeled, 99 

cellulose in, loi 

composition of, 99 

cooking of, loi, 102 

creamed, 105, 106 

digestibility and nutritive value, 

lOI 

experiment to extract starch from, 

99 
flavor of, loi 
Lyonnaise, 105 
mashed, 103 
"mealiness" of, 100 
methods of cooking, 102 
new, 103 
paring of, 102 
quality of, 100 
riced, 104 



Potatoes, soaking, 101, 102, 103 

steamed, 102 

storing of, 100 

structure of, 98, 99 

sweet, baked, 104 
boiled, 104 

warmed-over, 104, 105 

with cheese, 106 
Potato cakes, 106 

soup, 109 

water, 155, 156 
Poultry, 179 

Protein, combination of elements in, 
40 

danger of excess, 44 

effect of cooking upon, 122 

effects of deficiency, 44 

function of, 42, 43, 44 

proportion in the body, 41 

test for, 174 

vegetable, 2y:^ 
Protein in cereals, 120, 122, 145, 146 

cheese, 266, 267 

corn meal, 126 

eggs, 171, 172 

fish, 250 

gluten flour, 150 

legumes, iii, 271, 2y2, 2^1 

meat, 184 

potatoes, 99, loi, 103, 2'j2 

rice, 131 

rye, 145 

vegetables, 90 

wheat, 142, 144, 145, 149 
Proteins, 42, 43, 44, 45, 48, 102, 174 
Protoplasm, 2, 35, 40, 87 
Prunes, 84 

cranberries and, 85 

iron in, 47 

stewed, 85 
Pudding, 1 1 3 

apple tapioca, 114 

cornstarch mold, 113 

cream rice, 135 

Indian, 127 

sago, 114 

scalloped apple, 166 
Puree, 107 
Puree of Lima beans, 276 

Quail, 173 

Quality in meat, 186, 203, 215 

Rabbits, 179 

Racks, "hotel" or "short," 205 

"long," 205 

mutton or lamb, 203, 205 

or ribs, 209 

veal, 199 



INDEX 



297 



Radishes, 279 
Range, coal, 19 

gas, 22, 22, 
Raisins, to seed, 286 
Raspberries, to serve, '/^ 
" Ready-to-eat " cereals, 121, 122 
Red dog flour, 149 
Refrigerator, care of, 16, 17 
Rennet, 260, 266 

custard, or junket, 263 
Rhubarb, baked, 84 

water, 285 
Rib chops, 209, 210 
Rib cut, 187, 191, 192, 193 

prime, 193 

roast, 192 

rolled, 193 

standing, 193 
Ribs, 203 

or rack, 209 
Rice, 131 

boiled, 134 

broken grains of, 131 

composition of, 131 

cooking of, 131 

cream of, ptidding, 135 

cooking of, 127 

digestibility of, 131 

flavor of, 132 

natural brown, unpolished, 132 

"polish," food value of, 132 

polished, 131, 132 

steamed, 132, 133 

to wash, 132 

water, 107, 109, 131, 135 
Ripe melon, test for a, tj 

pineapple, 79 
Ripening, changes produced in, 2(i(> 

cheese, 266 

cream, 259 

fruit, 75 

meat, 180 

vegetables, 87, 88 
Roast, beef, 186, 192, 194 

chine or loin (pork), 217 

crown of mutton, 211 

leg of mutton, 207, 221 

loin of mutton, 207 

pork, 217 

pot-, 194 

rib, 186, 192, 193, 209, 210 

rump, 194 

shoulder clod, 195 

veal, leg of, 199 
Roasting, 25, 54, 194, 210, 222, 

meats for, 215, 221 
Rolled beef, 231 
Rolled oats, 124 



Rolled wheat, 124 

Root crops, 89 

Round-bone sirloin steak, 192 

Rounds, 187, 188, 189, 193 

Round steak, 193, 194 

bottom, 194 

top, 194 
Rugs, to clean, 6 
Rump, back of, 189, 194 

boneless, 194 

butt, 194 

face of, 189, 194 

middle of, 189, 194 

steak, 189, 194 
Russian method of serving, zz 

tea, 67 
Rusting, to prevent, 13, 16, 2() 
Rye, a cereal, 1 10 

bread, 145 

flour, 145 

gluten of, 145 

"Saddle" of mutton, 203 

Sago, no 

Sago pudding, apple tapioca or, 113 

Salads, 2"/"] 

college, 278 

egg with rice, 280 

German potato, 281 

junior, 281 

rice and tomato, 279 

salmon with rice, 279 

water lily, 279 

shredded cabbage, 279 
Salad dressings, bacon fat, 280 

cooked, 278 

French, 2^J^ 

sour cream, 280 
Salad plants, to wash, 277 

preparation, 2-/-J 
Salmon, 250 
Salt, 46, 155 
Salts, mineral, 43, 52 
Sauces, 1 15, 116 

apple, 82 

brown, 1 12 

butter dressing for fish, 254 

cranberry, 83, 84 

drawn butter, 252 

^Z%, 133 
hard, 168 
lamb or veal, 2^6 
meat, 236 
mint, 231 
nutmeg, 167 
tomato, 129 
vegetable, 92 
whipped cream, 264 
white, 1 1 4-1 1 9 



298 



INDEX 



Saute, 55 _ 

Savory drippings, 249 

Scalloped dishes, apples, 166 

fish, 253 

meat, 244 

onions, 167 

tomatoes, 157 
Scouring knives, 13 
Scrambled eggs, 178 
Scrubbing boards and tables, 16 
Seasoning, 92, 104, 23;^, 277 

vegetables, 92 
Semolina, 129 
Service, table, 30, 31, 32 
Serving, methods : Compromise, 33 

English, 33 

Russian, 33 

vegetables, 92 
Shanks, 187, 194, 196, 199 
Sherbet, milk, 64 
Shin, 196 
Shoulder, 209, 210, 211, 213, 222 

-blade steak, 211 

butts, 218 

chops or steaks, 211 

clod, 195 

mutton, 211, 221 

picnic, 218 

pork, 218, 221 

steak, 194, 205, 210, 211 

veal, 199, 221 
Shredded wheat, 123 
Sides of beef, division of, 187, 199 

mutton, division of, for household 
use, 205 

pork, 217 

veal, 199 
Silver, polishes, 14 

polishing, 14, 15 

storing, 14 

tarnish, 14 
Silverware, care of, 13 
Sink, care of, 15, 16 
Sirloin, butt, 190 

flat-bone, 192 

hip, 191 

round-bone steak, 192 

steaks, 190 

strip, 190 
Sirup, for cornballs, 140 

caramel, 128 
Skimmed milk, 259, 260, 266 

for breadmaking, 164 

cheeses, 266 

for cottage cheese, 269 

nutritive value of, 259 
Skirts, beef, 222 
Slaw, cole, 279 
Smoked fish, 250 



Soaking dishes, 10 
Soap shaker, to make, 11 
Soda, baking, 15, 273 
Soda, bicarbonate of, 273 
Soft cooked eggs, 175, 176 
Solanin in potatoes, loi 
Soups, baked bean, 275 

cream of vegetable, 107 

Lima bean, 276 

mixed vegetable, 108 

pea, split, 275 

potato, 109 

rice and tomato, 108 

vegetable, 107-109 
Soup meats, 222 
Sour cream, 259, 265 

cheese, 270 
Sour milk, 259, 260, 261, 269 
Souring, cause of milk, 260 
Spaghetti, no, 128 
Spinach, 47, 90 
Spoonful, to measure, 56 
Spring lamb, 202 
Spring wheat, 142, 143 

flour, 142, 272 
Stairs, to sweep, 7 
Standing rib, 193 
Starch, a carbohydrate, 51 
Starch, arrowroot, iio 

change of, into dextrin, 112, 120 

corn, no, in, 113, 116 

digestibility of raw, 113 

experiments with, 66, 99, in, 112 

granules, separation of, in, 112, 
116 

how to cook, 113 

inference from experiments with, 
112 

nutritive value, 50, 51 

object in cooking, 113 

solubility, 66, 112, 118 

source, no, 1*11 

test for, 99 

thickening power of, 107, in, 114 
Starches and Sugar, no 
"Starchy foods," 51, no, 113 
Starchy substances, no 
Starchy wheats, 142 
Starch-yielding vegetables, 89, in 
Steak, bottom round, 194 

broiled, 236, 237, 238, 239 

chuck, 221 

club, 190, 191, 221 

Delmonico, 191 

flank, 195, 196, 221 

flat-bone sirloin, 192 

Hamburg, 194, 240 

"hip sirloin," 191 

mvUton or lamb, 211 



INDEX 



299 



Steak, pork, 221 

porterhouse, 190, 191, 221 

round, 193, 194, 221 

round-bone sirloin, 192 

rump, 194 

"short/' 191 

shoulder, 194, 195, 211 

sirloin, 190, 191, 221 

small, 190 

tenderloin, 191 

T-bone, 191 

top round, 194, 221 

veal, or cutlets, 199, 221 
Steam, 55, 61, 62, 62,, 2:^7 
Steam cookers, 54, 55 
Steamed apples, 81 

custard, 177 

potatoes, 102 

rice, 132, 133 

vegetaWes, 92 
Steaming, 54 

"dry," 54 

"wet," 54 
Sterilization, 118 
Sterilized water, 61 
Stew, beef, 234 

dumplings for, 234 

lamb, 235 

veal, 235 
Stewing meat, 222, 22,2, 233 

meats, 222 
Stock, meat, 107 

vegetable, 92 
Stove, or range, coal, 19 

dampers, to regulate, 19, 20 

flues of, 21 

removing ashes from, 21 

to blacken, 22 

to polish, 22 
Stove, gas, 23, 24, 26 

care of, 25, 26 

heat of, for baking, 24 

requirements in a, 22, 23 
Strawberries, yy, 80 
Suet, 245, 246, 248 
Sugar, a carbohydrate, 51 

as food, 135, 136, 137 

caramelizing of, 128, 158 

cooking of, for candy, 138 

digestion of, 136 

experiment with, 75 

fruit, 74, 75 

in diet of children, 137 

in flour, 142 

milk. 256, 257, 26,0 

nutritive value, 133, 136, 137 

powdered and confectioners', to 
measure, 55 



Sugar, rapid assimilation of, 136 

solubility of, 66 

source of energy, a, 135, 137 

starches and, 1 10 
Sulphur, 39, 40, 43 
Supper table, the, 29 
Sweeping, carpeted floor, 6 

hard, smooth floors, 5 

implements for, 4, 5 

method of, 5 

preparation of room for, 5 

rugs, 6, 7 

stairs, 7 
Sunlight as a disinfectant, 4 
Svv'eetbreads, 198 

pancreas, or stomach, 199 

thymus, or throat, 199 



Table, the breakfast, 27 

of comparative food values, 272 

decorations, 27 

dinner, the, 29 

kitchen, to scrub, 16 

laying the, 27 

of measures and weights, 57 

supper, the, 29 

w^aiting on the, 31 
Taffy, butter, 140 
Tail-bone, 190, 191 
Tapioca, no 

apple, pudding, 114 
Tarnish, silver, causes of, 14 
Tea, beef, 22s, 225, 226 

elfects of boiling, 67, 68 

extract, 68 

flaxseed, 284 

iced, 69 

preparation of beverage, 68 

Russian. 68 

stimulating properties of, 68 

tannin in, 67 

theine, 67 
Teas, Ceylon, 67 

fermented, black, 67 

green, unfermented, 67 

India, 67 

partially fermented, oolong, 67 

unfermented, or green, 67 
Tender cuts, how to cook. 223 
Tenderness in meat, indications of, 

185 . 
Tenderloin, 185, 190, 191, 194, 207, 

209, 217, 218, 221 
Theobromine, 72 
Thickening liquids, general rule for, 

1 16, 1 17 
Tinware, cleaning of, 13 
Tip of sirloin, 189 



300 



INDEX 



Tissue, 35, 179 

bone, 36 

muscle, 36 

nerve, 36 

skin, 35 
Toast, 117 

cream, 119 

digestibility of, 118, 120 

dry, 117 

"fingers," 117 

hot milk, 119 

hot water, 1 18 

soluble compounds of, 118 

water, 1 19, 120 
Toasting bread, effect of, 118 

flavor produced by, 118 
Tomato and rice soup, 108 
Tomatoes, 97 
Tomato sauce, 129 
Top of round, 194 
Tough meat, to make tender, 228 
Towels, care of, 15 

selection of, 11, 15 
Tray, bowl, 28 

crumb, 31 

for invalid, arrangement of, 282 

use of, in serving, 30, 31, ;^2 
"Trimmings," meat, 183, 194, 195, 

213, 219 
Tuber, 98, 99 
Tubers, sprouted, loi 
Turkeys, 179 
Turnips, 94, 95 

Unfermented, or green, tea, 67 
Unleavened bread, 141. 142 
Utensils for dish-washing, 11 

Vacuum cleaner, 5 

Veal, "bob," 196 

Veal, bones of, 198, 199 

breast of, 196, 222 

cooking of, 198, 221, 222 

"cutlets," or steaks, 199 

cuts of, retail, 199, 220 
wholesale, 197, 198 

digestibility and nutritive value of, 
199 

fat, 198 

flavor of, 198 

fricandeau, 198 

knuckle, 199 

leg, 199, 221 

or lamb stew, 235 

quality in, 198 

racks, 199 

saddles, 199 

sides, division of, 199 

shoulder, 221 



Veal, steaks, 199, 221 

stew, or chuck, 199 

water in, 198 
Vegetable "fruits," 91 

protein, digestibility of, 27^ 

soups, 107, 109, 275, 276 

stock, 92 
Vegetables, cellulose in, 51, 75, 87 

classification, 89 

cleansing, 89 

contamination of, 88, 89 

cooking, 91, 92 

digestibility of, 92 

ferments or enzymes in, 87, 88 

flavor of, 87, 90, 92 

freshness, 87, 88 

green, 90 

mineral substances in, 90 
to preserve color in, 91 
value in diet, 90, 91 
vitamines in, 90 
water in, 90 

importance of cleanliness in han- 
dling, etc., 88 

loss of soluble material in cook- 
ing, 87, 92 

mineral matter in, 47, 87 

nutritive value and digestibility, 
87, 89, 90, 91, 92 

over-cooking, effect of, 91, 92 

preparation of, 91 

protein in, 90 

sauce for, 92 

seasoning, general rule for, 92 

serving, 92 

soaking, 89, loi. 102 

starch-yielding, 89 

steamed, 92 

structure of, 87 

succulent, 89, 90, 92 

vitamines in, 42, 91 

water in, 90 

wilting of, 88 
Vermicelli, no, 128 

Vitamines, 42, 90, 164 

Washing, dishes, 10, 11 

milk utensils, 263 

towels, 1 5 
Waste pipe of refrigerator, to clean, 

16, 17 
Water, apple, 285 

boiling point of, 62 

boiled, 61, 62 

contaminated, 60 

dish, II 

distilled, 61 

drinking, 46, 61, 62 



INDEX 



301 



Water, elements in, 40, 59 

experiments with, 62 

for cooking, 62 

forms of, 62 

freezing point of, 62 

functions of, 42, 52 

hard, 60 

hardness of, 60, 61 

importance of, 52 

impurities in, 59, 60 

in body, 40, 45, 52 

in food, 42, 45 

mineral substances in, 59, 60 

organic substances in, 59, 60 

proportion of, in body, 41, 45 

pure, 59 

purification of, 59 

rain, 60 

regulator of bodily functions, 52 
of temperature, 52 

rhubarb, 285 

soft, 60 

softening hard, 61 

solvent power of, 59 

sources of, 59 

steam, 55, 61, 62, Sz, 2^7 

sterilized, 61 

uses in the body, 52 

in the household, 11, 59, 6S 
Watery vapor, 63 
Watermelon, to serve, 80 
Wheat, no 

bran, 148, 149, 150 

bread, 163 

classes of, 142 



Wheat, composition of, average, 142 

durum, no, 128, 129, 143, 144 

entire, or whole, 149 

flour, milling of, 142 

germ of, 147 . 

gluten of, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 
149 

grain, structure of, 146, 147 

macaroni, 128, 129 

rolled, 124 

spring, 142, 143, 144 

vitamines in, 164 

whole, or entire, bread, 163 

winter, 142, 143, 144 
Whipped cream, 264 
Whey and curd, to separate from 

milk, 174 
White sauce, 11 4-1 19 

ingredients, 114 

medium, 116 

methods, 115 

thick, 116, 117 

thin, 116 
Weighing, 55 
Wood, 20 
Wood measure, 58 
Woody fiber, 51 

Yeastcake, characteristics of a good, 

152 
Yeasts, compressed, 151, 152 

dry, 151, 153 

liquid, 151, 153 
Yeast, source of, 151, 152 

wild, 2 
Yolk, egg, composition of, 172 



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